The URL can be used to link to this page

Home My WebLink About1996 Snow Creeek & Salmon Creek Watershed AnalysisUnited States Forest Quilcene Ranger P .O;'f�Box `280 " Department of Service District Quilcere, WA 95376 (�'"'' Agriculture Reply to: 210 Date: September 30, 1996 Dear Reviewer, Enclosed is the watershed analysis for the Snow Creek and Salmon Creek watersheds. It reflects many hours of work and review by many people, both inside and outside the Forest Service. The intent of this report is to document the natural processes and human impacts, which have been, and are currently at work in the watersheds. While we hope we have caught the important forces at work, we are aware that with additional time and resources, the report could continue to grow. This is the first iteration of watershed analysis in these watersheds, of what should be a continuing process. This analysis examines the natural processes, management activities, and their effects for the whole analysis area, but is limited in scale to making recommendations only for the National Forest. I hope this Watershed analysis is useful, and will further understanding of the watersheds and how they work. BE \J�VttN 0. NIZER District Ranger it ICEIVE OCT 0 5 2001 A.H. WUNTY HFALT i DEPT'. UPS Caring for the Land and Serving People 1 Snow Creek and Salmon Creek 00 r � Watershed Analysis f f C.L f eq .0 (� 4, f C� , qq - r� September 30, 1996 I Snow Creek and Salmon Creek Watershed Analysis Prepared for USDA Forest Service Olympic National Forest By Snow Creek and Salmon Creel: Watershed analysis Team September 30, 1996 Module Leaders/Writers Steve Ricketts Mike Donald Stacv Lemieux Scott Schreier Bill Shelmerdine Robin Stoddard Sandra Nilson- Afusser Snow Creek and Salmon Creek Watershed Analysis Team Quilcene Ranger District Quilcene Ranger District Quilcene Ranger District Quilcene Ranger District Olympic N.F. Supen•isors Office Olympic N.F. Supen•isors Office Olympic N.F. Supen•isors Office Team LeaderNegetation/Social Fish Wildlifea& -E Plants &- Animals GIS Maps Channel Morphology Hydrology Geology/N-fass Wasting/Erosion Table of Contents List of Figures v List of Tables v List of Maps v Executive Summary I Issues I Landscape Functions 2 Aquatic Trends Social Patterns Analysis Recommendations Riparian Reserves 3 Habitat Restoration Recommendations Opportunities for Commodity Production 4 Informational Needs 4 Characterization of the Watershed 5 Watershed Analysis 5 Watershed Setting Location 5 Land Forms 5 Climate 6 Geology /Geomorphology 6 Oceanic Crust 6 Rise of the Olympic iVlountains 6 Bedrock Geology 7 Ice Ares and the consequence of glaciations 7 Postglacial changes resulting in present terriain 7 O«nership 7 Vegetation 3 Aquatic 3 Social /People 8 References 9 Issues and Key Questions 10 Issues l0 Landscape Function 10 Aquatic Functions 10 Social Systems l0 Key Questions 10 Landscape Function 10 Aquatic Functions I I Social Systems 12 Landscape Functions 13 Vegetation Reference Conditions 13 Range of Natural Variability 13 Landscape Pattern 14 Fire as a Disturbance Factor 14 Vegetation Response to Fire 17 Wind as a disturbance factor is Insects and disease as disturbance factors 19 Mass wasting as a disturbance factor 20 Timber Harvest as a Disturbance Factor Non- native plant species as a disturbance factor Vegetation Current Conditions Plant Associations Forest Vegetation Structure Forest Development Existing Vegetation Quantitative Distribution of forest development Age 0 -20 Years Age 2 1 -80 Years Age 8 1- 170 Years Age 171 plus Years Disturbances Plant Species of Concern Endangered, Threatened, & Sensitive Vascular Plant Species "Survey and titanage" Species Endemic Vascular Plant Species Noxious Weeds & Other Invasive Non - Native Species Wildlife Conditions Threatened and Endangered Species Northem Spotted Owl General Information Reference Conditions Current Conditions Limiting Factors Forest Service Opportunities ilarbled Nlurrelet General Information Reference and Current Conditions Limitins Factors Forest Service Opportunities Bald Eagle General Information Reference and Current Conditions Limiting Factors Opportunities Peregrine Falcon General Information Reference and Current Conditions Limiting Factors Opportunities Gray Wolf Candidate Species and Species of Concern Candidate Species Bull Trout Species of Concern California Wolverine Cascades Frog Long -eared Mvotis Long - legged 'vivotis Northern Goshawk Olive -sided Flycatcher Pacific Fisher Pacific Lamprey 20 21 22 22 22 23 24 25 25 25 25 25 26 26 26 27 28 28 28 30 30 30 30 31 33 33 34 34 34 35 35 35 35 36 36 37 37 37 37 37 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 39 39 39 39 40 40 40 Pacific Western Big -eared Bat 40 Tailed Frog 41 Survey and Manage Species 41 Molluscs 41 Management Indicator Species _ 42 Roosevelt Elk 42 General Information 42 Reference and Current Conditions 43 Forest Service Opportunities 44 Neotropical Migratory Birds 45 General Information 45 Reference and Current Conditions 45 Forest Service Opportunities 46 Cavity - dependent Species 46 General Information 46 Reference and Current Conditions 46 Forest Service Opportunities 47 Habitat Guilds 47 Ecosystem- initiation stage forest Habitat 47 General Information 47 Reference and Current Conditions 47 Opportunities 43 Competitive exclusion stage forest habitat 43 General Information 43 Reference and Current Conditions 43 Opportunities 49 Understory reinitiation stage forest habitat 49 General Information 49 Reference and Current Conditions 49 Opportunities 49 Late - successional forest habitat (DUS. BDS. NDS. FFS. and OGS) 49 General information 49 Reference and current conditions i0 Opportunities 50 Riparian and Wetland habitat 51 General Information 51 Reference and Current Conditions 51 Opportunities 51 Estuarine and Marine habitat 52 General Information 52 Reference and Current Conditions 52 Opportunities 52 Agriculturz'urban habitat 5' v General Information 53 Reference and Current Conditions ;3 References ?' Aquatic Functions- (including hillslope and hydrologic processes) 56 Climate Reference 56 Climate Current 56 Precipitation 56 Air Temperature 53 Water Quantity Reference 58 Hydrologic Setting 's Ground Water and Surface Water �� 1Vater Quantity Current Hvdrologic Setting Snow Creek Salmon Creek Ground Water Surface Water Snow Creek Salmon Creek Potential Sensitivity to Changes in Peak Flow - Water Quality Reference Erosional Processes - Sediment Production Surface Erosion Mass Wasting - Shallow Rapid Mass Wasting - Deep Seated Channel Erosion Water Quality Current Sedimentation Snow Creek Salmon Creek Stream Temperature Snow Creek Salmon Creek Bacteria Snow Creek Salmon Creek PH Snow Creek- Salmon Creek Disolved Oxvgen Snow Creek Salmon Creek Stream Channel Geomorphology Unit Definitions Summary Channel Reference Conditions Lower Watershed Channel Current Conditions Snow and Andrews Creeks (Including Trapper and Rixon) Upper - watershed Lower Watershed Salmon Creek Relationship of activities to erosion and water quality Riparian and Wetlands Reference Conditions Shade Coarse Woody Debris Stream Bank Stability Riparian and Wetlands Current Conditions Wetlands Coarse Woody Debris Recruitment Potential Forest Type Shade Fish :Methods. Data Sources, Stren,th of Analvsis IV 59 59 59 60 60 60 60 62 63 64 65 65 65 66 66 66 67 67 68 6S 69 70 70 71 71 71 71 71 71 71 72 72 73 73 75 76 76 76 77 77 78 78 79 79 79 79 80 80 SO 81 83 84 84 84 Reference Conditions 84 Habitat S=3 Species S' Fish Community 85 Current Conditions 86 Habitat 86 Aquatic Habitat Connectivity throughout the Watershed 87 Refugia 88 Species 88 Coho 89 Chum 90 Steelhead _ 90 Cutthroat „91 Herring 91 Sturgeon 91 Species Distribution 92 Fish Community 92 Regulatory Efforts 93 Current Restoration Efforts ' 9' References 94 Social Systems _ 99 Pre- European Settlement 99 Post - European Settlement 99 Logging 100 ,Mining 100 Transportation 100 Water Use l00 Communities and occupation 101 Values and Uses 101 Terrestrial 101 Timber Harvest 101 Special Forest Products 101 Agriculture 101 Transportation 101 Roads 101 Airport 101 Water Pipeline 101 Powerlines 101 Radio Relay 101 Wildlife 102 Hunting and Trapping 102 Aquatic 102 Agriculture 102 Fish 102 Social 102 Recreation 102 Desired Products 102 References 103 Trends 104 Landscape Patterns 104 Aquatic Trends 106 Social Patterns 107 References 107 Interpretation 108 v Interrelationships I OS Salmon Creek 112 Trapper Creek 1 13 Upper Snow Creek (within the National Forest) 1 14 Lower Snow Creek (off the National Forest) 1 15 Andrews Creek 115 References 116 Recommendations and Opportunities 117 Desired Conditions 1 17 — Land and Resource Plan for the Olympic National Forest (1 -990) 117 Northwest Forest Plan (1994) 1 17 Riparian Reserves 1l3 Riparian Reserve Designation 113 Stream Class 119 Site Potential - Tree Height 1 19 Slope Distance - measurement 1 19 Unstable or Potentially Unstable Slopes 1 19 Riparian Reserve flap 120 Identification of Riparian Boundaries in the Field 120 Intermittent Streams 121 Wetlands 121 Restoration and Habitat Condition Improvement 122 General Analysis Area Recommendations 122 Specific Recommendations 123 Salmon Creek 173 Trapper Creek 134 Upper Snow Creek 124 Andrews Creek 125 Rixon Creek 125 Transportation Planning 125 Opportunities for Commodity Production 175 Information Needs 125 References 136 Appendix I. Glossary 127 2_ Survey and Manage: plant and fungus species known. suspected. or possible. 137 vi List of Tables Table 1 Fire History of Snow and Salmon Creek Watersheds Table 2 Number of Times Burned Table 3 Summary of Fire History Statistics by Vegetation Zone, Olympic National Forest (adapted from Henderson, et al. 1989) Table 4 Regeneration Harvest History Table 5 Percent Forest Vegetation Zone by Successional Stage Forest Table 6 Analysis Acres by Ageclass Table 7- Forest Service Sensitive Plants with Potential to Occur in Snow and Salmon Creek Watersheds Table 8 Endemic Vascular Plant Species with the Potential to Occur in the Analysis Area Table 9 Wildlife Analysis Species Table 10 - Reproductive history for activity centers w /in 2.7 miles of Snow and Salmon Creek Watersheds Table I I - Acres of owl habitat within 2.7 miles of known activity centers Table 12 - Acres of owl habitat within 0.7 miles of known activity centers Table 13 Average maximum and minimum monthly air temperatures for Snow Creek watershed. Table 14 Snow and Salmon Watersheds Gaging Station Information. Table 15 Recurrence Intervals for Estimated Discharge at USGS Gage 12050500. Table 16 Hvdrologic Maturity, Drainage Density, Road Density, and Precipitation Zones for Snow and Salmon Watersheds Table 17 Snow Creek - Summary of Monthly Stream Temperatures for Snow Creek. Table 18 Channel Segment Identification Table 19 Geomorphic Units Table 20 Estimated Total Stream Length CWD Recruitment Potential Table 21 Estimated National Forest CWD Recruitment Potential Table 22 Estimated Total Stream Length Riparian Forest Type Table 23 Estimated National Forest Riparian Forest Type Table 24 Estimated percent shade cover of area streams Table 25 Estimated percent shade cover of area streams on the National Forest Table 26 Fishes likely inhabiting Salmon and Snow Creeks prior to European settlement. (Thom Johnson, WDFW, personal communication). Table 27 Select Information From Ambient Monitoring Data collected by the Point No Point Treaty Council Snow Creek. (1995) Table 28 The status of Fishes in Salmon and Snow Creeks Summarized from Published Reports Table 29 Discovery Bay Stock Characterization (from SASSI. 1992) Table 30 Fish Distribution Table 31 Anadromous Salmonids Genetic Classifications Table 32 Geomorphic Types with Transport and Response List of Figures Figure I Historical Change in Forest Successional Stages, 1600 -1993 by Decades Figure 2 Total annual rainfall at Snow Creek Research Station for years listed. Figure 3 Average monthly rainfall at Snow Creek Research Station for years listed. Figure 4 Average maximum and minimum monthly air temperatures for Snow Creek watershed. Figure 5 Greatest storm flows each year on Snow Creek. Figure 6 Average Daily Stream Temperature for Snow Creek at R.M. 0.8. Figure 7 Average ,Monthly Stream Temperature for Snow Creek at R.M. O.S. Figure 8 Snow - Salmon Profiles &, Geomorphic Units V11 List of Maps Map I Vicinity Nlap 2 Subwatersheds with Streams & Wetlands ,Map 3 Geologic Units Map 4 Administrative Boundaries /Ownership Map 5 Hydrologic Maturity Map 6 Historic Fire Activity Map 7 Number of Times Burned Since 1305 Map 8 Managed vs. Unmanaged Forest Vegetation Map 9 Forested Vegetation Zones Map 10 Age Class `lap I I Spotted Owl Habitat Map I'_ Marbled Murrelet Habitat Map 13 Rain on Snow Zones Map 14 Channel Segments Map 15 Upper Extent of Fish Distribution Map 16 Riparian Reserve *1 111 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The President's Forest Management Plan, called the Northwest Forest Plan (NWFP) recommends watershed analysis for all watersheds on federal lands as a basis for ecosystem planning and management. The Olympic Peninsula Advisory Committee has prioritized the watersheds on the National Forest to be analyzed. A team was then formed to analyze the Snow and Salmon creek watersheds and compile information into this document. The team used the 6 step federal method. These steps are: I -. .Characterization of the watershed 2. identification of issues and key questions 3. Description of current conditions 4. Description of reference conditions 5. Synthesis and interpretation of information 6. Recommendations The analysis area includes Snow Creek and Salmon Creek watersheds and their tributaries. This watershed analysis uses and builds on the previous data, research and plans. No additional field data was collected during this process. Information was obtained from Forest Service and other agency electronic data. GIS analysis, literature review, maps, personal communications and aerial photography. Direction for this iteration of the analysis for Snow creek and Salmon creek watersheds is to look at the entire watershed, but to concentrate the recommendations to the National Forest. The recommendations must develop from a need to move from present conditions to desired conditions. Reference conditions and current conditions have been discussed in this document. The desired conditions on the National Forest have been identified through the NEPA process with EfSs. They are described for this analysis area with goals and objectives in the Olympic National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan (ONFP) (USDA 1990) as modified by the NWFP (USDA and USDI 1994). The ONFP of 1990, provides management direction for National Forest System lands within the Olympic National Forest, including the analysis area. The NWFP has amended the ONFP. Other laws that give direction for management within the watershed include: Federal Clean Water Act Reauthorization, National Forest Nanagement Act, Endangered Species Act and Growth Management Act. Issues The main issues within the watershed were scoped by the team and listed. Key questions %%ere then develooed from these issues. Identified concerns were: • Landscape Function: • Aquatic Functions Patch iness %Frag men cation Stand Structures Predominately early successional stages on private lands Predominately mid successional stages on the National Forest Little to no late successional stages exist in the watersheds Doghair -- depauperate, small size trees, slow growth Exotic species Wildlife diversity and TES species Stream Flow -- Flooding, Sedimentation Aquatic species habitat and populations Coarse woody debris At risk species and populations Culvert passage Water quality The effects of physical processes on organisms Stream stability • Social Systems Timber harvest availability Special Forest Products availability Landscape Functions The trend in wildfires has been a major, eastern Olympic Peninsula stand replacement fire approximately every 200 years. The most recent wildfire on this scale. however, occurred in 1701. Much of the lower part of the analysis watershed burned in the I860's and then most of the watershed, including the upper watershed, again burned in the 1920's. These fires were also of stand replacement intensity but were associated with clearing or logging activities and were much smaller in area than the historic tires. The recurrent nature of fire in these watersheds produced a cyclical vegetative condition. Early sera( forest stretched across the landscape every 200 years for a 15-20 year period. Then forest went through mid - seral staves for about 150 years. Finally, late -seral conditions were prevalent during the last couple of decades before the next fire started the cycle over again. For this reason, wildlife populations were no doubt cyclical as well, with those species that could do well in the available habitat expanding their populations until the forest evolved past their requirements. Traditionally in the Snow /Salmon watersheds, a landscape -scale disturbance (fire) has been followed by a long recovery period. In contrast the trend in timber harvest activity across the watershed is best described as a "chronic" disturbance: small disturbances, distributed across the watershed, occur at regular intervals with very little or no recovery time. Timber harvesting, and road building to access timber, has been an ongoing activity in the watershed since the 1860's. Timber harvest has not reduced or increased the amount of any habitat type beyond what would have occurred naturally at some point in the wildfire cycle. It has altered the proportions and quality of each habitat type relative to what would be natural in the.cycle. On the National Forest, the trend in harvest activities has decreased significantly since 1990. On State and private lands. harvesting is still continuing, though more care may be given to providing a diversity of habitat types than has been in the last few decades. The focus for State and private forest management will likely remain on providing a timber commodity. Recent timber harvest has resulted in a scattering of Ecosystem Initiation Stage forest on the National Forest within the two watersheds. On State and private lands, most of what would naturally be mid -seral forest has been harvested in the last 20 years, increasing the amount of early -seral forest substantially. The quality of early -seral forest at present is thought to be lower than historically. The amount of coarse woody debris found in ,young plantations after timber harvest is lower than what likely remained after a Eire. More red alder occurs in young stands now than in the past after the episodic fires. Mid -sera) forest, which would be dominant across the landscape under the wildfire regime, is presently extensive on the National Forest. Commercially thinned stands may develop many late -seral characteristics, such as large trees and multiple canopy layers. more rapidly than dense. sloe _,rowing stands developing under natural conditions. Thinning can improve the suitability of the otherwise dense forest for many plant and wildlife species. However, forests that originated from harvest or that have been commercially thinned have fewer snags and down logs than those originating from natural disturbances. 2 Late - successional forest associated species have suffered the greatest habitat loss due to past management. Timber harvest typically focuses on the timber of greatest value, which usually means the oldest and largest trees. Therefore. there is less late- successional forest available now than would have occurred naturally. Species dependent on snags and /or down wood also have been impacted by forest management. There is less coarse woody debris to provide nesting, foraging, and resting sites for many species. With changes in management, naturally occurring trends will continue and the stand will eventually provide coarse wood under natural conditions. The trend of non - native plant invasion across the entire watershed can be assumed to be increasing, and will continue to increase in the future. Aquatic Trends The switch from a fire- dominated landscape to one defined by human management has altered riparian habitats. In the past decade, there has been an increased understanding of the value of coarse woody debris in streams and the importance of shading provided by the forest canopy. Management techniques now include protecting riparian areas with all their components instead of the stream cleanout of the past. Historically, there was a hardwood component in the riparian vegetation, but probably not as significant as at present. With the harvesting of timber, alder and other hardwoods became much more numerous because of the open conditions and bare mineral soil. The reduced emphasis on timber harvest on the National Forest means that as current hardwood stands age and decline, they will not be replaced to the same extent. Resident trout distribution and migration potential is presently less than historically. Road culverts have restricted fish movements in some streams. The overall abundance of salmonids in Salmon and Snow creeks has decreased dramatically from historic conditions due to habitat degradation, and increased fish harvest. Social Patterns The use of the watershed and demand for forest products has been increasing since European settlement. While this has been occurring, there has also recently developed a public environmental awareness trend. This came about from the public pressure on elected officials to change management objectives for ecosystem management. The NWFP indicates a significant change in public attitude and the objectives for managing public lands. Analysis Recommendations Riparian Reserves The Riparian Reserves as described in the NWFP with interim guidelines, are not recommended to be revised with this analysis. No criteria were identified to indicate- a benefit by a change of their boundaries. This analysis, while not recommending a change in the boundaries. has included guides to assist project developers in identifying boundaries on the ground. Habitat Restoration Recommendations The following are summaries of analysis recommendations. More detailed discussion exists in the Recommendation and Opportunity Chapter. Following stand destruction, reforestation should occur as soon as possible. This includes species manipulation to manage for disease conditions. Stand management activities that develop the stands at a quicker rate and increase quality of habitat should be encouraged, such as thinning, pruning, and fertilizing. Early stocking control is one of the most important treatments the stands can have as it sets growth rates and species for much of the stand development. Stands should also be managed to minimize hardwoods from out - competing coniferous stocking when that is the desired stand type. Alder should remain a component within stands, including patches for deciduous forest users. Coarse woodv debris and snags need to be managed and aenerally need to be increased. Cavities need to be developed in mid - successional stands. Remnant trees should be protected to retain late- successional attributes where available. Forested riparian buffers that are resistant to blowdown are needed to provide sufficient shade, habitat, and cover. and to provide for future recruitment of coarse woody debris. Wetland vegetation should also be protected and restored with regard to vegetation complex and for water quality /quantity. Avoid around breaking activities within the inner gorges of streams in transportational reaches. In order to meet Adaptive Management Area (AMA) and Late Successional Reserve (LSR) objectives, stand replacement wildfire must be minimized. .additional specific recommendations on the National Forest are suggested in the Recommendations section. Opportunities for Commodity Production Thinning of forest stands can provide a variety of benefits, including timber and special forest products. Often harvest will improve habitat conditions. or the rate that the stand reaches desired conditions. Stand management activities. such as thinning, pruning, and fertilizing, which develop the stands at a quicker rate and increase quality and value of potential products, should be encouraged. Informational Needs There needs to be a continuous ecosystem inventory to monitor stand and habitat conditions and know when treatments are needed. This includes riparian areas, wetlands and forested wet areas, as well as fish and wildlife species. Continue photo point monitoring that has been continuous since 1929. Continue long -term research within the original Snow Creek plantations. Do not compromise research values for commercial timber harvest. 4 Characterization of the Watershed Watershed Analysis This watershed analysis is being done as recommended by the NWFP. The Aquatic Conservation Strategy, within the NWFP, has several key components such as: Riparian Reserve area designation, Key Watershed designation, Watershed Analysis process and Watershed Restoration. Watershed analysis will be used as a basis for ecosystem planning and management within the Snow and Salmon Creek Watersheds. "The information from watershed analysis will be used to develop priorities for funding, and implementing actions and projects, and will be used in developing monitoring strategies and objectives." (USDA and USDI 1994) All management activities by the Forest Service will be conducted to " "Complying with the Aquatic Conservation maintain and restore" the ecological health of the watersheds. Strategy objectives means that an agency must manage the riparian - dependent resources to maintain the existing condition or implement actions to restore conditions." (USDA and USDI 1994). The purpose of watershed analysis is to develop and document a scientifically based understanding of the ecological structures, functions, processes and interactions occurring within a watershed. From this understanding, trends, conditions, and restoration opportunities can be identified. The analysis contained in this document examines the interplay of vegetation, soils, water quality and quantity, wildlife and fish in the Snow and Salmon Creek Analysis Area. This document collects and compiles information from the watershed which can aid in providing an understanding and a better base for future decision making. This is not a decision document. Watershed analysis is an ongoing, iterative process. This report is intended to be a dynamic document. As such, the document combines and analyzes existing data; subject to revision as new information becomes available. Additionally, gaps in information will be highlighted for future iterations. Major sources utilized in this document include: Land and Resource Plan for the Olympic National Forest (USDA. 1990). The Discovery Bay Watershed (Nelson et al, 1992). Dungeness- Quilcene Water Resources Management Plan (Jamestown S'Klallam Tribe, 1994), Record of Decision for Amendments to Forest Service and Bureau of Land i4lanagement Plannina Documents Within the Range of the Northern Spotted Owl (USDA �C USDI, 1994). This first iteration will consider issues and conditions throughout the watershed, but will analyze management options and provide recommendations for only National Forest lands. Watershed Setting Location The Snow and Salmon Creek watersheds lie in the northeast corner of the Olympic Peninsula of Washington (Map 1). They are not key watersheds as designated in the NWFP. The analysis area consists of 39 square miles_ The streams begin on the eastern face of Mt. Zion, and tlow to the southern tip of Discovery Bay (Map 2). We have broken the analysis area into five sub watersheds to aid in discussions: Salmon Creek, Trapper Creek. Upper Snow Creek (within the National Forest), Lower Snow Creek (off the National Forest), and Andrews Creek. Land Forms The highest elevation in the watersheds is 4273 ft above sea level at the peak of :tilt. Zion_ The streams enter the southern tip of Discovery Bay, on the Straits of Juan De Fuca, at sea level. They start as small streams which flow from the east slope of Mt. Zion. The larger streams. Snow Creek- and Salmon Creek, carry this flow parallel to one another out of the foothills of the Olympic mountain range and empty into Discovery Bay within a few hundred yards of one another. Prior to European 5 settlement of the area, Snow Creek was a tributary of Salmon Creek, %with the junction occurring just downstream of the present site of the Washington Department of Wildlife fish trap site on Salmon Creek. The lowermost 0.6 mile of Snow Creek has been channelized and with this, the stream was "moved" to the eastern side of the valley. Durina high rainfall periods. Snow Creek overflows into the old channel in the pasture reestablishing some direct contact with Salmon Creek. Snow Creek still joins Salmon Creek in the intertidal area during low tides (Nelson et al., 1992). Prior to development in the area, Andrews Creek Flowed south into Leland Lake; thus it's 7.5 sq. mile subwatershed (about 1/3 of the Snow Creek watershed) was tributary to the Little Quilcene River, and Crocker Lake had no natural outlet (Jamestown S'Klallam Tribe 1994). Climate Snow and Salmon watersheds lie predominantly in the rainshadow of the Olympic Mountains, in the northeast corner of the Olympic Peninsula. The Olympic Mountains intercept much of the precipitation, resulting in average annual precipitation of 41 inches (Jones and Stokes Associates, 1991). Precipitation within the watersheds typically occurs as rain and ranges from light rain to heavy downpours. Eighty -five percent of the rainfall occurs October through May. Snow accumulates primarily on the eastern slopes of the Olympics, but in relatively low levels. The northeast Olympic Peninsula is the driest coastal region north of southern California (Jefferson County, 1990). The mild climate reflects the moderating maritime influence of the Pacific Ocean by way of the Straits of Juan de Fuca. Average monthly temperatures range from summer highs of 75 degrees Fahrenheit to winter lows of 3 l degrees (Jones and Stokes Associates, 1991). Geology /Geomorphology Numerous forces formed the Olympic Peninsula's landscape. Tectonic plate movement, uplifting, erosion, and glacial activity worked over millions of years to shape the landscape seen today. However, in comparison with most of North America, the Olympic Peninsula's development over 50 million years makes it quite young (Jamestown S'Klallam Tribe, 1994). Oceanic Crust The oldest rocks, approximately 50 million years old, are oceanic crustal basalts formed and transported awav from an "oceanic ridge" toward the North American continental plate, and associated seamounts. In the usual tectonic progression, the dense oceanic- crustal material would be ultimately subducted under the lighter continental- crustal plate and reabsorbed into the underlying mantle. However, a piece of plate broke off, surfaced, and "docked" against the pre - existing continental margin when subduction shifted west beyond the western margin of this plate fragment creating the Olympic Peninsula. From the peak of Mt. Constance to the foothills behind Sequim, the dark basaltic rocks can be seen. While the oceanic crust was still submerged, sequences of marine sediments were deposited. forming the sedimentary rock strata. This strata can be seen on the shoreline of the Strait of Juan de Fuca near the western tip of the Olympic Peninsula (Jamestown S'Klallam Tribe 1994). Rise of the Olympic Mountains The shift of subduction to a new line west of the peninsula and Vancouver Island began filling a new trench with sediments scraped off the subductiog oceanic crust from the west and sediments carried out from the continent to the east. Eventuallv these trench deposits, lighter than the overlying crustal rock of the peninsula, pushed up and eastward to form the Olympic Mountains, or the "core rocks ". These rocks, beinz west of the basalts, were not protected from the intense tectonic activity. Consequently, these mountain rocks are severely twisted, folded, and metamorphosed from the heat and pressure of the trench and the subsequent uplift. Their contact with the peripheral rocks is marked by faults circling_ the north, east, and south portions of the mountains (Jamestown S'Klallam Tribe, 1994). Bedrock Geology The Salmon Creek Watershed is underlain primarily by the Crescent Basalt Formation (Tcbb) consisting of basalt flows and ntudflow breccias (Map 3). The flows are characterized by closely spaced. random joints and locally are columnar jointed (formed above water) or pillowed (formed underwater). These are the oldest rocks in the study area. The basalts are generally harder and more erosion - resistant than the sedimentary rocks in this area. A fault, running approximately east -west, terminates the basalt exposure on their southern boundary (Tabor and Cady 1978). The bedrock geology of the area south of the basalts consists of younger sedimentary rocks of the Lyre Formation (Tic and Tls) and the Twin River Formation (Ttr). "Tic" consists of thick - bedded to massive, pebble to cobble conglomerate. Generally, these rocks are ridge - formers, although they do have thin interbeds of sandstone and shale. The other unit (Tis) consists of sandstone and minor siltstone. Near iVtaynard, thick - bedded volcanic lithic sandstone is angular, and poorly sorted. The "Ttr" unit of the Twin River Formation is composed of undifferentiated sandstone, siltstone, and mudstone. The section of Ttr exposed in the Snow Creek area appears to be predominantly siltstone and mudstone (Tabor and Cady 1978). Ice Aa es and the consequence of glaciatiotts The past 2 million years, extending up to 10,000 years ago, was an "ice age" that repeatedly reshaped the region by glaciers. , Four or more cordilleran ice sheets, moving down from British Columbia, accomplished major reshaping of the foothills and lowlands. The Puget lobe pushed down the Puget lowland to a few miles beyond Olympia (Jamestown S'Klallam Tribe, 199.1). The greatest extent of coverage by continental ice was reached during the Salmon Springs Glaciation, somewhat earlier than 35,000 years ago. This ice sheet reached an elevation of about 3,500 feet on Mt. Zion. The 4,273 WE peak projected through the surrounding ice like an island. The erosive action of the ice - sheets over - riding the lowland area, rounded and smoothed the terrain. The glaciers also deposited multiple layers of compacted and unconsolidated sediments throughout this area. These sediments include granite -like rocks, "erratics", transported from British Columbia and the North Cascades by the Cordilleran glacial ice sheets. Only the upper slopes of Ott. Zion avoided the rounding process. As a result, these slopes are the primary area of steep slopes in the watersheds. Post,lacial changes resulting in present terrain The Cordilleran ice sheets weighed heavily on the earth's crust, causing depressions in the surface of hundreds of feet. Concurrently, sea levels were lowered due to water trapped in glaciers. Evidence exists indicating the last glacial episode to affect the region receded rapidly, with the ice sheet thinning, floating and breaking up in the eastern. Strait, as temperatures rose. The sea -level rise was accordingly rapid, and coastal lowlands, freed from glacier ice, were submerged under marine waters. The rebound of the earth's crust was more gradual, returning to equilibrium level some 5,000 years ago. At Port Townsend, the rise of the earth's surface has been estimated at nearly 500 ft. since the Vashon ice disappeared (Jamestown S'Klallam Tribe. 1994). Ownership Forest land ownership includes the Olympic National Forest (7.724 acres). the State of Washington Deoartment of Natural Resources (WDNR) (6.711 acres), private ownership (10.581 acres) consisting industrial forest lands over 150 acres, and many small private land owners with holdings up to 150 acres_ about half is in public ownership (USFS, WDNR) (Map 4). The small ownerships include those who manage their lands for timber or firewood production, as well as others who are holding these lands for recreational or investment purposes. Vegetation Some pasture lands occur in the lowlands, and include stream corridors. Over 90 % of the watershed is forest land (Map 10), with coniferous forest in various stages of development. The most common species are Douglas -fir, western hemlock, and some western redcedar, with various amounts of red alder inclusions. Most of the public forest land is now in 50� yr. age stands, but still in mid seral stages. There has been heavy harvest impact on the private timberlands within the past 10 to 15 years, and many of those acres are in the early seral stages Disturbances, both human and naturally caused, affect the vegetation cover. Fire, and timber harvesting are major disturbances which have affected the analysis area Large, intense, pre - historic fires (pre - 1800) and smaller post - settlement fires of the 1800's and I900's played a major role in shaping, the vegetation in the watershed. Timber harvesting has been an important disturbance factor in the watershed in this century. Most timber harvesting has been accomplished by clearcutting followed by forest regeneration. Some of the second growth on public lands has been commercially thinned. Aquatic Runoff distribution similar to precipitation patterns characterize Snow and Salmon watersheds. These watersheds have low base flows, as evident with summer flows often measuring less than 2 cubic feet per second. Predicted peak flows show a vast change in character in response to intense storms (Nelson et al., 1992). Natural recharge of ground water is primarily from direct precipitation that percolates through the soil profile. Snow levels are low due to elevation and the rain shadow effect, and thus snow melt does not provide significant recharge to aquifers. Runoff is also limited by evapotranspiration of fallen precipitation (Nelson et al., 1992). Wetlands within the Snow and Salmon watersheds most frequently occur in valleys. gently sloping, and relatively flat areas (tap 2). Shrub and forested wetlands predominate in the mountains. The majority of wetlands are associated with one or more streams. Many stream - adjacent wetlands have been influenced by beaver activity. Wetlands are important habitats for salmonids and other aquatic and terrestrial species. Residents obtain water for domestic use from ground water. Availability of water for domestic use is a limiting factor for population growth in the area (Nelson et al., 1992). Chum and coho salmon, steelhead, resident cutthroat, stickleback, brook and Pacific lamprey and sculpin are present in the analysis area. Chum and steelhead are currently under review by the National Marine Fisheries Service for ESA listing. Coho in Puget Sound and the Straight are not recommended for listing at this time. Social /People The history of human habitation within the Analysis Area dates back 11,000 years_ Anthropological study of local Native American tribes reveals that native people moved among pre - established sites with the seasons and the availability of food resources. When Captain George Vancouver explored this area in 1792, he found a deserted village at the southern tip of Discovery Bay (Vancouver. 1792). The Olympic Peninsula became part of the United States in I S46 with the establishment of the boundary between the US and Canada. Settlement proceeded rapidly in locations with good harbors and where logging and early sawmills could produce lumber for export. The remnants of an old sawmill and an old school house can still be found, left from the old community of Discovery Bay, located at the bay's southern tip. There are a few businesses at the southern tip of Discovery Bay near the junction of US Hwy. 101 and State Hwv. 20. A number of rural homes are scattered throughout the lower watershed. 8 References Jamestown S' hlallam Tribe (coordinating entity). 1994. Dungeness- Quilcene water resources management plan. Blyn, Washington. Jones and Stokes Assoc. 1991. Watershed Characteristics and Condition Inventory, Pysht River and Snow Creek Watersheds. Dept. of Natural Resources, State of Washington. TFW- ANl10 -91 -001. Nelson, T., L. Adkins, M. Hoover, J. Heller, B. McIntosh, and T. Granger. November 1992. The Discovery Bay Watershed. Tabor, R.W. and Cady W.M. 1973. Geologic Map of the Olympic Peninsula, Washington. USDI United States Geological Survey. Map 1 -994. USDA. 1990. Land and Resource rtitanagement Plan, Olympic National Forest. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region, Olympia, WA. USDA and USDI. 1994. Record of Decision for Amendments to Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management Planning Documents Within the Range of the Northern Spotted Owl. Standards and Guidelines for Management of Habitat for Late- Successional and Old- Growth Forest Related Species within the Range of the Northern Spotted Owl. 100+ pages. Vancouver. G. 1792. Original Journal of Vancouver's Discovery of Puget Sound 9 Issues and Key Questions Issues: The main issues within the watershed were determined by the team and listed. Key questions were then developed from these issues and are discussed within this document. Identified concerns and key questions are: Landscape Function Concerns: Patch iness!Fragmentation Stand Structures Predominately early successional stages on private lands Predominately mid successional stages on the National Forest Little to no late successional stages exist in the watersheds Doghair -- depauperate understory, small size trees, slow growth Exotics Wildlife diversity and TES species Aquatic Ftutctions Concerns: Stream Flow -- Flooding, Sedimentation Aquatic species habitat and populations Coarse woody debris At risk species and populations Culvert passage Water quality -- i.e. effect of streams on Discovery Bay pH The effects of physical processes on organisms such as: Stream stability Social Sweats Concerns: Timber harvest availability Special Forest Products availability Key Questions: Landscape Function Patterns • What historic disturbance processes have occurred across the landscape' • What road network is present and how does it affect watershed processes' • How is the current landscape pattern different from what would be expected under the natural disturbance rezime? • What landscape pattern would best meet ecological objectives and social expectations for the watershed over time? 10 Vegetation • What is the current/potential vegetation within the watershed? • What plant species of concern or exotics are found within the watershed? • What is the current condition and what processes affect late seral stands within the watershed? Wildlife • What is the amount, distribution, and location of critical habitat for wildlife species? • What wildlife species and species groups currently and historically inhabit the watershed? • What are the processes affecting wildlife biological diversity? • What wildlife species are within the watershed that are of concern due to their classification, value and/or population status /trend? What is their status and trend? • What are the biological and physical factors limiting the analysis species populations? • What opportunities are there in the watershed to help provide for conservation or recovery of analysis species? • Where and what types of restoration actions might maintain or improve wildlife species habitat? Aquatic Functions Stream Flow • What management- related processes have the potential to influence the natural magnitude and frequency of stream flow? • Is there evidence of changes in the magnitude timing or frequency of peak flows or low flows? • How have input and routing of course and fine sediment changed from historical conditions? Wetlands /Riparian • Where are the riparian areas located within the watershed? • How have riparian processes involving wood, shading, and vegetative composition /structure chanted relative to historical conditions (via fire, management, silviculture, roading) • How have inputs of LWD affected the routing of course and fine sediment? • Where and what types of restoration actions might maintain or improve wetland`riparian habitat? Aquatic Species Habitat • How has complexity of instream habitat changed from historical conditions? • What are the processes that deliver wood and where do they occur' • What chan,es have occurred in input and routing of large woody debris" • What migration barriers exist for fish? • What processes, physical and biological, are affecting the aquatic species habitat? • Where and what types of restoration actions might maintain or improve aquatic species habitat? Water Quality • Is there evidence of increased sediment loading and /or reduced water clarity? • What other types of potential water quality impacts may be associated with human activities in the watershed? At Risk Species and Populations • What is the historic and current life history, populations and distribution of fish and other aquatic organisms? • What are the current fish habitat conditions for the watershed? • What is the stock status of anadromous and resident aquatic species? • What role does the watershed play in providing for conservation or recovery of these species? • What species and life stages are now favored as a result of the change in physical processes? • How has fish management affected distribution and species assemblage of fishes in the watershed? • How has the production capacity of the aquatic habitat changed for the species of interest? Social Systems Uses • What human uses have occurred, are occurring, and are planned within the watershed? Commodities • What resources used by humans have been extracted from the ecosystem in the past and at what maznitude? • Where are opportunities for commodity extraction? 12 Landscape Functions Vegetation Reference Conditions Climatic patterns are dynamic over long periods of time and are reflected in the flora. The patterns and types of vegetation that occur in the Snow /Salmon creek watersheds today may be quite different from that which occurred in the past, and from that which may occur in the future. The climate of the Olympic Peninsula cannot be reliably reconstructed for periods earlier than about 25,000 years ago. However, we do know that the climate and vegetation during Pliocene and Miocene times (13 to 25 million years ago) was quite different; the climate during the Miocene was warm, wet and temperate and supported many species of hardwoods. This time scale spans millions of years and is significant in the evolution of plant and animal species. The modern flora of the Olympic Peninsula developed during this time period, after the rise of the Cascade and Olympic Mountains. The climate from approximately 4,000 to 10,000 years ago is considered to be the warmest and driest in the last 50,000 years. This time is known as the Hypsithermal Period. The climate in the Pacific Northwest was more continental than it is today. Evidence from the Hypsithermal Period points to an abundance of alder, lodgepole pine and Douglas -fir, and also to a scarcity of many of the tree species associated with the Olympic Peninsula today, such as silver fir, western redcedar and mountain hemlock. Prior to the Little Ice Age (from about 1000 to 1300 a.d.), the area experienced warm, dry conditions known as the Medieval Optimum. The vegetation of the Olympic Peninsula, at that time, probably included greater proportions of Douglas -fir, subalpine fir, lodgepole pine and western white pine, and less silver fir and mountain hemlock. There were two or three "Little Ice Age" type glaciations from about 1000 to 4000 years ago. The climate of the Olympic Peninsula at that time was probably comparable to the Little Ice Age. The present climate of the Olympic Peninsula is relatively warm and wet compared to the past 50,000 vears. This climate is described as cool, temperate and maritime. It supports a diverse flora and favors 1350 and growth of trees. The climate for the past 1,000 years has not been constant. Prior to about back to about the 14th century, was a period called the Little Ice Age. It was a period of about 600 years with cold winters and aenerally unfavorable climate in the northern latitudes. There was considerable variability in both temperature and precipitation during this time. Towards the end of the Little Ice Age (about 1750 to about 1330) the climate on the Olympic Peninsula was apparently cool and wet. This was a period of poor growth for most tree species. However, these conditions were apparently favorable to Pacific silver fir, which expanded its range at that time. It is presently reducing it's range_ (Henderson 1933) Range of Natural Variability The range of natural variability refers to the bounds of natural ecological variability in landscape /ecosystem composition, structure and function that has occurred. The range of natural variability of successional stages in the Snow /Salmon creek watershed has been a dynamic event due to the cyclic nature of the primary disturbance regime. Wildfire has been the major disturbance process in the Snow /Salmon creek watershed in its natural condition. The fire return period for the past 700 years has been a stand - replacing fire approximately every 200 years. Riparian and other protected areas, to some extent, may have survived these large -scale catastrophic tires. These fires produced a pattern of large, even -aged tracts which succeed into later successional stages more or less in unison. Immediately following a fire, a large area of the watershed would have been in an early- successional stage. After a 200 year period, a majority of the watershed would likely have been in the early phases of late - successional stage. f3 Historically, there has always been an important hardwood component in the riparian vegetation. Even when long periods existed between fires allowing late- successional coniferous stands to encroach on the streams, flooding and the gap created by the streams would allow hardwoods to survive close to the stream. Thus, there was permanent seed source in riparian areas. Often large Douglas -fir survived fires either scattered or in pockets in the riparian areas. Where they didn't, succession proceeded from alder to hemlock and cedar where floods did not continually create new alder habitat. Riparian areas were very diverse. Shortly after fires, the riparian areas contained the few late - successional refuaia that existed. Also, late in succession the riparian areas contained the few hardwood refugia that existed. They had the biggest structures and greatest species diversity. It was not likely that pure Douglas -fir stands would develop (Peter, 1996 pers. comm.). Although small disturbances, such as wind, small fires and diseases, caused small areas of heterogeneity across the landscape, it is likely that the majority of the watershed was typically in a mid - successional stage between fires. Therefore, at most times, the largest, most contiguous element in the landscape was likely in mid- successional stage. Smaller areas of early - successional and late- successional stands also occurred in the landscape. The historical change in successional stages across the Snow /Salmon creek watershed is represented in Figure I. Figure I demonstrates the cyclic and dynamic nature of the pattern of successional stages across the landscape for the Hood Canal area which includes the analysis area. The quantity of a particular forest successional stage changes in relation to disturbances and time- In 1710, following the large fire of 1701, a majority of the watershed was in an early - successional stage forest. After 70 years, in 1730, most of the watershed was in a mid- successional stage forest. By ISSO, a large portion of the watershed had progressed to a single -story late- successional stage forest. Within the range of natural variability, early- successional forests originating from fires generally contained snags and downed wood, while recently created early - successional stage forests, originating from harvest units typically contain few snags of significant size. The same distinction should be reflected in the mid- successional stave areas. Although the watershed may be within the range of natural variability in respect to quantity of early - successional stage forests, the quality, due to the lack of snags and downed wood, may not be within the range of natural variability. Landscape Pattern The patterns of vegetation are the result of disturbance. Disturbances are events that result in radical change, often in a very short time period. The primary disturbances include fire, windthrow, insects and disease, mass wasting and more recently timber harvesting and non - native invasive plant species. The vegetation reflects various environmental and climatic factors. Fire as a Disturbance Factor The fire history of the region suggests that the watershed may have historically contained late - successional stage forests in an unknown portion of the riparian areas. The uplands and non - riparian areas would have burned more frequently, and therefore contained more homogenous, even aged forests. At different times, these even aged forests would have been in an early- successional stage (i.e. during the First two or three decades immediately following a fire), and then in a mid - successional stage (i.e. as early- successional stage forests develop and evolve until the next tire). Wildfire is a major inherent disturbance factor. The occurrence of wildfires in the watershed is closely tied to climatic patterns. The combination of long -range temperature cycles, the local " rainshadow" effect, jet stream patterns, east winds and perhaps sunspot cycles, together can create conditions for intense, catastrophic forest fires in this area. Historically, three great burning episodes occurred in the eastern Olympic peninsula from 1300 to 1750, at the end of the dry, warm, Medieval Optimum Age. and during cool, dry portions of the Little Ice Age (Henderson et al. 1939). These older fires were large. 14 L. LI ta 0661 e In e -80- -0 -1- O i 0 0 0 m of • I 0 0 0 C: O a,�-x 0 0 c) 0 C) C) C) 0 C) ..... . . . . . . C 0 6 6 0* 0, 0, C), 0 C') co r� 0 ..... ...... C) CU 3 c > > IRMO M=Oxrk� '. �WIWIWMMI -nl=� MIWII� to 4) w 0 m 0 K 0661 O e e -0 e -80- -0 -1- -1-4z e C-) O 0 0 0 0 of • C-) 0 0 0 O O C) a,�-x 0 0 c) 0 C) C) C) 0 C) ..... . . . . . . 0 0 6 6 0* 0, 0, C), 0 C') co r� (D ..... ...... m CN — IRMO M=Oxrk� '. �WIWIWMMI -nl=� MIWII� ....... ....... ....... ...... Ill I Will ANX0 O e e -0 e -80- -0 -1- -1-4z e C-) O 0 0 0 0 C> C-) 0 0 0 O O C) CD 0 0 c) 0 C) C) C) 0 C) 0 0 0 6 6 0* 0, 0, C), 0 C') co r� (D Lr) m CN — intense fires, burning most of the northern and eastern portions of the Olympic Peninsula. Recent tires, (in the early 1900s), though watershed scale were much smaller and were related to logging_ and clearing activities (USDA 1994) (Map 6). The watershed has experienced an intense history of wildfire (Map 7). The fact that old - growth or climax stands, found throughout much of western Washington's National Forests, occur rarely in this area indicates that most of the forested areas of this watershed have burned and reburned many times during the past 1000 years. (Henderson and Peter 1983). Year of Fire(s) M" of Fires Acres Burned 1508 1 25,016 1864 1 10,606 1900 - 1909 2 266 1920 -1929 S 1 17,060 Table 2. Number of Times Burned 4 V 1 =1 Wildfires in the last 1,000 years generally fall into three types: (1) large, intense, stand - replacement fires have occurred approximately every 200 years; (2) smaller, more frequent, less intense fires probably also occurred, but evidence of these is masked by the larger fires; and (3) frequent but much smaller fires which occur on a regular basis. The northeastern portion of the Olympic Peninsula has been swept by large, intense fires at least 3 times in the last 700 years. -These fires have occurred in 130S. I50S and 1701. These prehistoric fires were predominantly large, stand - replacement fires, resulting in a landscape of large, even -aged tracts of forest. The interval between Fires was usually long enough to allow considerable accumulation of ground and ladder fuels resulting in hot crown fires that killed all or most trees_ Older trees survived in cooler pockets and in riparian corridors. Otherwise, the watershed was largely even -aged and progressed through successional stages in unison. Smaller fires, likely-burned portions of the landscape between the larger fires. The result would have been a slightly more heterogeneous landscape of even aged patches. Evidence for prehistoric smaller fires, if they occurred, have been destroyed by the larger tires (Peter 1993). Wildfires peaked again in 1860s and 1920s. during the modern or "settlement" period. Most of this watershed was burned in these fires. Since the 1930s. the watershed has experienced few fires. Although fire fighting techniques have certainly improved, the two principal reasons for low fire occurrence are l) greatly improved fire prevention (most of the severe more recent fires were human - caused and therefore preventable): and 2) a change in the summer precipitation pattern of the area. During the decades of the 1910s and 1920s. for example, summers with less than 2 inches of precipitation were common. Since the 1950s however there were only two years with summer precipitation less than 2 inches. Data are from the Olympia weather station. The precipitation pattern at Olympia will differ from that in this area. However, these data can be used as an index to show the difference among summer precipitation patterns during the period when there were more fires in the watershed, and summer precipitation patterns during more recent times when 16 reseeded last. Depending upon the vegetation zone and site conditions, differences in rates of reforestation likely created some heterogeneity within the landscape. The early and early mid - successional stands created by fires inherited snags and down logs from the burned forest. Most of the snags probably fell during the first 100 years following a fire, so that relatively few large snags occurred in the mid - successional stands for the second 100 years. However, it is probable that additional snags and downed lots were recruited from surviving remnant stands and from the young incoming stand. The surviving remnant stands would have been more prone to damage from wind and disease, resulting in a Greater amount of snag recruitment. Uplands were probably especially slow to regenerate. Some slopes may have failed and become chronic contributors of sediment. In the earliest years following these fires, there likely was substantial erosion and sedimentation into the streams. tNlass wasting is one of the few disturbances capable of altering the vegetation potential of the land. Deep seated mass wasting events remove soil, create new surface shapes and alter moisture relationships. Plant communities which return to these sites may be different from those that grew there before the event. It is difficult to know the magnitude or duration of the erosion, but a conservative estimate of the duration would be at least 10 years which is the average length of time for the Western Hemlock Vegetation Zone to attain 30% crown closure. Other factors, such as reforestation and Growth rates, weather patterns and storm events, would affect the magnitude and duration of erosion. For several decades following these fires, coarse sediment and large woody debris may have been supplied to streams in the watershed in large quantity. Eighty to 100 years after the fires, new coarse woody debris and coarse sediment recruitment probably slowed considerably. As this debris decomposed, it left deep decomposing duff. Recruitment of large woody debris would Gradually increase as the forest grew in size and older trees began to die. By the time the forest was 200 years old, another large fire usually occurred. In General, fire disturbance can be described as (arse and episodic. Fires were large, intense disturbances followed by periods of relative non - disturbance when the watershed was able to recover. Following, intense, stand replacement fires, riparian and other moist areas are typically dominated by a mosaic of late- successional conifer remnants with patches of hardwood tree species. The hardwood species occur in the riparian openings created by fire and floods, and remain for approximately 60 to 80 years. Hardwood species under a fire dominated disturbance regime occur in pulses. increasing for the First 60 to 80 years following fires. and then decreasing, until the next fire. Fire is still one of the major inherent disturbance factors in the watershed. All vegetation will eventually either burn or decompose. If climatic conditions are right and ignition occurs and is not caught in the very early stages, the potential exists for major wildfires. This watershed, as in the past, is susceptible to catastrophic fire which could generally occur in August through October with dry east winds. Young plantations would be flashy and veto fast burning, while older stands would slow the fire but intensity would increase. It would be expected, that living remnants in riparian areas, north slopes, and in cooler areas would occur. Under less than catastrophic conditions, the forest could still sustain a significant fire and bum several hundred acres in a day. This would be expected in areas of densely overstocked stands (doehair), and where blowdown has occurred such as in leave strips between plantations. It would be expected that fire would burn quickly through ,young stands with many fine fuels and possibly could be slowed and contained outside of clearcuts or where fuel treatment had previously occurred. Wind as a Disturbance Factor Large -scale windthrow does not appear to be a major disturbance. There are no large areas which appear to have originated from windthrow. Small -scale windthrow has occurred regularly. The scale and is relatively few acres burned (Henderson et al. 1989). Large destructive fires are a "natural" process in the western hemlock zone. The large stand - replacement fires typical of this zone are not truly suppressible once underway, unless caught in the initial stages. A summary of fire history statistics by vegetation zone for the Olympic National Forest demonstrates that the pattern and occurrence of past fires in the watershed strongly correlates with vegetation zones (Table 3). These data can be extrapolated for the Snow /Salmon watershed to understand the trends in fire patterns in this area. These data suggest that the largest percentage of acres burned in the last 350 years, and the lowest average fire return period for the last 800 ,years. occur in the Western Hemlock Vegetation Zone. That this vegetation zone represents a large percentage of the watershed emphasizes the fact that the watershed has a high fire frequency and an intense fire regime. Table 3. Summary of Fire History Statistics by Vegetation Zone, Olympic National Forest (adapted from Henderson, et al. 1989) Vegetation Response to Fire Recovery from the large prehistoric fires was probably very slow. Large areas of the landscape were burned while remnant patches of trees survived in drainage bottoms, in cool, north - facing areas and at higher elevations. Scattered trees may have survived elsewhere when protected by rock outcrops, moist sites. or just by chance. Old thick - barked Douglas -fir trees can often survive ground tires that are not too hot. Many trees, damaged by the fire, probably died after each fire. Many more isolated trees, or trees at the edge of surviving stands, may have blown down or had their tops blown out. Most surviving stands were probably small acreages. open and often fragmented. One of these may have been in the Snow Creek drainage near the National Forest boundary where stumps up to 12 feet in diameter have been seen following the logging of 1925. The resulting conditions following fire were favorable to Douglas -fir establishment. The prominence of Douglas-Fir in the watershed landscape is partially a result of the extensive fire history. A majority of seed sources for trees were in cooler riparian areas or with scattered survivors. Reforestation was probably slow. Because the main seed sources were likely concentrated in the riparian areas. reforestation across the landscape would not occur simultaneously. Toe slopes, and other areas adjacent to surviving trees, would be reseeded first, while areas farthest from seed sources would be Western Silver fir Sitka Spruce Subalpine Mountain Douglas -fir Hemlock Zone Zone Fir Zone Hemlock Zone Zone Zone Acres 430,500 163,600 19,000 14,300 17,300 2,200 Percent of Forest 64% 24% 3% 2% 3% < 1% Average Fire Return Period, last 234 yrs 629 yrs 900 yrs 208 yrs 844 yrs 138 yrs 800 years Acres burned since 1645 550,500 49.200 7,000 19,000 5,100 3,700 (350 years) Percent of acres burned in the last 350 128% 30% 37% 133% 30% 168% years Vegetation Response to Fire Recovery from the large prehistoric fires was probably very slow. Large areas of the landscape were burned while remnant patches of trees survived in drainage bottoms, in cool, north - facing areas and at higher elevations. Scattered trees may have survived elsewhere when protected by rock outcrops, moist sites. or just by chance. Old thick - barked Douglas -fir trees can often survive ground tires that are not too hot. Many trees, damaged by the fire, probably died after each fire. Many more isolated trees, or trees at the edge of surviving stands, may have blown down or had their tops blown out. Most surviving stands were probably small acreages. open and often fragmented. One of these may have been in the Snow Creek drainage near the National Forest boundary where stumps up to 12 feet in diameter have been seen following the logging of 1925. The resulting conditions following fire were favorable to Douglas -fir establishment. The prominence of Douglas-Fir in the watershed landscape is partially a result of the extensive fire history. A majority of seed sources for trees were in cooler riparian areas or with scattered survivors. Reforestation was probably slow. Because the main seed sources were likely concentrated in the riparian areas. reforestation across the landscape would not occur simultaneously. Toe slopes, and other areas adjacent to surviving trees, would be reseeded first, while areas farthest from seed sources would be occurrence of individual windthrow events is small in the watershed, particularly when compared to windthrow events on the westside of the Olympic Peninsula. As a disturbance factor, windthrow often acts in conjunction with other disturbances. Ultimately most trees and snags probably fall under the influence of wind. Often they fall after having been weakened by root and butt rots. Windstorms also break out tree tops reducing growth, deforming stems and allowing entry of wood rot organisms. Insects and Disease as Disturbance Factors There are no disease or insect infestations that are known to have achieved epidemic proportions in the Snow and Salmon watersheds. A number of fungi, insects and parasites cumulatively have large impacts, however these species usually affect trees in a scattered or diffuse manner and often pass unnoticed. Hemlock dwarf mistletoe (Arceuthobium tsugensis) is a common stem and branch parasite of western hemlock, and occasionally silver fir (Henderson et al. 1989). It causes swelling and profuse branching thereby diverting resources of the tree. While this activity degrades lumber quality and slows growth of the tree it also creates dense "brooms" which are sometimes used by birds for roosting and nesting. Both Spotted Owls and Marbled Murrelets have nested on such brooms. Similar brooms caused by Chrysomyxa rust on spruce trees in interior Alaska are used by flying squirrels for nesting sites (Mowrey and Zasada 1984). There are three common root diseases infecting forest tree species in this area: Laminated root rot. Armillaria root rot, and Annosus root rot. (Henderson et al. 1989). Root diseases reduce the vigor and growth of the infected tree and often kill the tree. Root strength is reduced allowing the tree to blow over in wind storms. Butt rot also is caused by these organisms which weaken the tree structurally and destroy usable wood products. Laminated root rot spreads out from tree to tree through root contacts creating expanding centers of infection. Some species are less susceptible than others. Root rots are also responsible for a steady recruitment of green trees into snags and down logs useful to wildlife as the forest ages. They also decrease the economical value of timber substantially. In young stands, minor amounts of disease in individual trees can help to thin the forest unevenly creating a diversity of stand conditions. Heart and butt rots are normal decay organisms of dead wood. In this role they are important to nutrient cycling and soften the wood so other organisms can excavate cavities in which to live. Occasionally some of them attack live trees through wounds such as might be caused by wind breakage or thinning damage. In this case they degrade lumber quality and leave trees vulnerable to stem breakage and windthrow. When heart or butt rots infect live trees they create new habitats such as hollow centers which are used by many species of wildlife. Important heart and butt rots include brown cubicle butt rot, annosus root rot, red ring rot, brown trunk rot, rusty -red stringy rot, armillaria root rot, crumbly brown rot and long pocket roc (Henderson et al. 1959). There are Five potential insect pests of conifers in this area, the Douglas -Fir beetle, silver fir beetle, western blackheaded budworm, hemlock Cooper and balsam wooly aphid (Henderson et al. 1959). Of these only Elie Douglas -fir beetle and the balsam wooly aphid have caused observable damage in recent years. The observed damage affected relatively few trees. In the early 1950s the silver Fir beetle caused significant damage to low elevation silver fir trees around the Olympic Peninsula. Much of the damage occurred to trees established during the cool, wet period at Elie end of the Little Ice Age. These areas are no%v marginal for silver fir due to the current warmer dryer conditions. 19 Mass Wasting as a Disturbance Factor Mass wasting is one of the few disturbances capable of altering the vegetation potential of the land. Deep seated mass wasting events remove soil, create new surface shapes and alter moisture relationships. Plant communities which return to these sites may be different from those that grew there before the event. Cumulatively, over long periods of time, mass wasting is a dominant force. In the short term, the concern is more for impact to aquatic systems and for lost forest productivity and habitat. Scars from mass wasting take a very long time to heal and productive forest soils may take centuries to form. Mass wasting events are often related to disturbances in the landscape. Large fires may temporarily alter i` hydrologic characteristics of the land. Root strength is reduced by killing soil holding trees and plants, and may set up conditions for mass wasting. The combination of specific geologic, geomorphic and soil conditions create areas prone to natural mass wasting events. Timber harvest and road building also create conditions which can lead to mass wasting. Timber Harvest as a Disturbance Factor Harvesting of forests began with the first settlement activities. Commercial timber harvesting started, in the 1860s and has continued until present. Much of the timber harvesting in the watershed has been done by clearcutting stands of trees. In the early days this was done through railroad logging and yarding with "steam donkeys ". Many old railroad grades can be found throughout the watershed and some remnants of old trestles crossing streams. Typically large areas were logged at one time. These have been described as the "glory days" of logging. More recently, large mobile towers and logging trucks have been utilized. The present road system follows many of the old railroad grades. Generally the harvest openings on the National Forest are under 80 acres, however, on private land within the watershed, there have been up to 1,500 acre clearcuts in the 1980s (Map 8). Douglas -fir has been the typical species for replanting and was used as early as 1927 in this watershed. Snow Creek was one of five areas within the Pacific Northwest Region for a study to explore the Potential to reforest through planting trees. During 1924 and 1925, fires had burned through the area blackening as much as 24,000 acres (Map 6). Fourteen thousand of these acres were in the Snow Creek watershed, and burned following railroad logging. Apparently one fire was caused by an engine from a logging train. Asa result, an experiment was conducted with 1,559 acres planted over three consecutive years starting in 1927, to determine the value of replanting. The stock used is of unknown origin and there has been some concern expressed of excessively limby, off -site trees. The seed was purchased from the Manning Seed Company of Roy, Washington and was said to be collected from western Washington presumably below 2,000 feet. One of the big concerns at the time was animal damage to the plantations. Many of the trees were apparently browsed by rabbits: The Snow Creek plantations are therefore some of the oldest planted forests in the Pacific Northwest and as a result are well known and have become pan of a number of forestry research projects by the Forest Service PNW Research Station. There were also small plantings of Giant Sequoia and Ponderosa Pine. There are still a few Sequoia which are doing well, but the Ponderosa has mostiv died out with just a couple of very sickly trees remaining. Planting continued to occur over the years following harvest, including some by the CCC and more recently contract crews. Much of the watershed was harvested startina in the last century and railroad logging harvested many acres in the 1920s. Exact acreage is not available, however the more recent history from the 1940s can be estimated from vegetation age. This estimate is for clearcut harvest, as that creates a new stand, but doesn't include thinning harvest. The acreages in Table 4 indicate that harvest has increased in the last two decades. It is likely that many of these had previously been harvested and were just becoming of size to reharvest. 20 Table 4. Reseneration Harvest History Decade Acres 1940s 344 1950s 353 1960s 799 1970s 345 1980s 4,514 1990s 3,013 The management objective for much of this watershed has been to maximize wood production and reforest as quickly as possible with fast growing, economically valuable tree species. Clearcutting and burning creates site conditions suitable for regenerating Douglas -fir. Commercial thinning has also been done within the watershed on the National Forest. Thinning on the National Forest has totaled 1391 acres since the 1960s, and much of the planted Snow Creek plantations have been thinned. Commercial thinning mimics the natural attrition that occurs in a stand as it ages and self thins while economically utilizin; the excess trees. The thinned plantation maintains a faster growth rate than an unthinned stand, and can develop large trees at a faster rate. These thinned stands though lack snags and coarse woody debris in the amounts now considered desirable. Non - Native Plant Species as a Disturbance Factor Non - native or exotic plant species are those that arrive in new habitats as a result of human activities. Intentional introductions occur with species of economic, scientific, medicinal or aesthetic interest. Many exotics arrive inadvertently, associated with vehicles, livestock, agricultural produce or human footwear. Once established in a new location, exotics can sometimes rapidly increase their range with the lack of their natural controlling conditions. Exotic plants may disrupt natural succession, alter plant community structure, displace or eliminate native species, and affect geophysical processes. Information is not available to the extent of exotic plant disturbance in the watershed, or the potential impact. The Olympic National Park has, however, prepared a Management Plan Of Exotic Plants In Olympic National Park (Olsen 1991). Some 187 species and varieties of exotic plants have been identified within or adjacent to the Olympic National Park. More than 334 species of exotic plants have been documented on the Olympic Peninsula, representing nearly 25% of all the known vascular flora. Exotics have become established or are suspected to occur in all habitats in the Park, including back-country high elevation areas, and in lowland areas adjacent to roads, developed areas and sites of human habitation. Because the Snow and Salmon watersheds have experienced greater disturbances than the Park, it is likely that the watershed has had a similar increase in exotic plant population. Vegetation Current Conditions Plant Associations Two forested vegetation zones, composed of 20 forested plant associations, occur or are likely to occur, in the Snow /Salmon Cr watersheds. Forested vegetation zones (Henderson et at. 1989) include (Map 9): • Western Hemlock Vegetation Zone (13 plant associations) • Silver Fir Vegetation Zone (7 plant associations) 21 Table 5. Percent Forest Vegetation Zone by Successional Stage Forest Vegetative Lone % Early "/0"Ma %Late Western Hemlock :> 18°0 79°! 3% Pacific: SilverFtr :.... �99% Q% The Western Hemlock Zone occurs in relatively wet site conditions and is found on 23,018 acres within the watershed. Douglas -fir, as well as western hemlock, is one of the dominant conifer species in this zone. Red alder dominated forests are also common in moist areas where there has been disturbance which exposes the mineral soil. Also, within this vegetation type is found a "doghair" condition with many small sized, trees of western hemlock and Douglas -fir growing "as thick as hair on a dogs back ". Stands in this condition may have from 1,000 to over 30,000 stems per acre in a stagnant growing condition. These stands are found on poorer sites that are relatively dry. This condition is unusual in western Washington, but common in the rainshadow of the Olympic Peninsula. Forests in the Silver Fir Vegetation Zone represents a small portion of the watershed, and occur in the higher elevations. Forests in the Western Hemlock Vegetation Zone cover the largest portion of the watershed, and occur in all elevations of the watershed. The silver fir zone is found where moist and cool site conditions are common, generally above 3.000 feet on north aspects. It occupies 614 acres within the watershed. Wetlands also occur within the Snow /Salmon watershed. Most of these are classified as palustrine (Cowardin et al. 1979). Many more small palustrine wetlands are scattered throughout the lowlands. Forest Vegetation Structure The USFS "TRI" database was queried forage class on the National Forest. This data was verified by aerial photo interpretation. DNR provided age class information for DNR managed lands up to age 55. Data from some private forest land was provided up to age 30. Ages beyond those are estimated from past Fire history. There are eight hypothetical stages of forest ecosystem development which can be used to help describe and understand the vegetation structure (Carey et al. 1995). The following definitions distinguish the different developmental stages: • Ecosystem initiation (EIS): Death or destruction of overstory trees by wildfire, windstorm, insects, disease, or timber harvesting leads to the establishment of a new plant community rapidly succeeded by other plant communities until trees dominate the ecosystem. • Competitive exclusion (CES): Trees fully occupy the site and compete with one another and other plants for light, water, nutrients, and space to the point where most other vegetation and many trees become suppressed and die. • Understory reinitiation (URS): Achievement of dominance by some trees and death of other trees leads to reduced competition that allows understory plants to become established. • Developed understory (DUS): Understories of (orbs, ferns, shrubs, and trees have developed following death of some dominant canopy trees: there has been insufficient time for diversification of the plant community. • Botanically diverse (BDS): Organization and structure of the living plant community becomes complex with time and as the canopy opens further. .-absence of coarse woody debris and other elements precludes a developed full, complex biotic community. • Niche diversification (NDS): Organization and structure of the biotic community becomes complex with aggradation of coarse woody debris, litter, soil organic matter, and botanical diversity; foraging needs of all forest vertebrates are met. r-» • Fully functional (FFS): Additional ecosystem development provides habitat elements of the necessary large size and the time for development of function (interactions) to provide for the life requirements of diverse vertebrates, invertebrates, fungi, and plants. • Old growth (OGS): Forest ecosystems after more than 200 years of development uninfluenced by modern civilization that have achieved elements of large stature, great diversity, and complex function. These are not necessarily linear development stages. Some stands or portions of stands may return to CES at any point in their development as they increase in density. The age class that correlates to 0 - 60% crown closure, and therefore defines the EIS. for the vegetation zones follows. The 60% or less crown closure was chosen to distinguish EIS from CES. This data from the Sub - Regional Ecological Assessment for the Olympic National Forest (Peter 1993) determined the crown closure and aae estimate, for each of the vegetation zones. • Western Hemlock Zone: less than or equal to 21 years. • Silver Fir Zone: less than or equal to 40 years for managed stands, and less than or equal to 33 years for unmanaged stands. In the DUS, BDS, NDS. FPS, and OGS there is a continuous distribution of aces and sizes of trees in the stand. Data from the Sub - Regional Ecological Assessment for the Olympic National Forest (Peter 1993) provided the minimum age class/successional stage relationship for the late - successional classifications: • Western Hemlock Zone: forests greater than or equal to 175 years. • Silver Fir Zone: forests greater than or equal to 300 years. These criteria are the minimum age for single story late- successional forests. The aae criteria for multi - story late- successional forests was determined to be much greater for each of the vegetation zones. FFS is late- successional stands with well developed understories. Forest development Forest Ecosystems do not move through the defined stages of development at precise time intervals, so a Eight correlation between age and development stage is not possible. The movement of ecosystems through development stages is influenced by factors internal to the stand (e.g.. species composition, plant vigor) and external agents (e.g., wind, disease, silvicultural treatment). The results are varied and individual ecosystems may move through stages rather quickly, or they may remain in one of the stages for decades, or even revert to earlier stages_ Although the age of managed forest stands is generally available, an inventory of acres in each development stage has not been completed. Table 6 shows the acres by age - class, and the most likely development stages for ecosystems of these ages. There is a division in this array worth noting. While most ecosystems in excess of 30 years old originated following fire. most ecosystems less than SO years old originated following clearcut harvest and planting_ Table 6 Analysis Acres by Ageclass Aaeclass 0- 10 years I 1 -20 years 21 -40 years 41 -SO years S 1 -170 years 171 -400 years 400 plus years Nonforested Total Acres Development 5,960 EIS 1,769 EIS, CES 946 EIS. CES 1 1,1 71 CES, URS 3,1 It CES, URS, 675 URS, DUS, BDS, NDS. FFS 0 NDS, FFS, OGS 1.384 25,016 The young "managed stands" present a contrast to late- successional forest. Approximately 1,972 acres within this analysis area have been clearcut since 1940. Most were broadcast burned. and were regenerated 2- by a combination of planted seedlings and natural seed fall. Earliest harvests were large contiguous areas of railroad logging and tend to be in the lower elevations. With truck hauling there was a transition to large (40 to over 100 acre) block clearcuts. Clearcutting and subsequent treatments reduced the complexity and diversity of these forest ecosystems. To minimize the fire hazard and prepare the ground for reforestation, many units were broadcast burned and some had unmerchantible woody material yarded as well. These sites in general have a lack of snags and coarse woody debris. Burning and removal of coarse woody debris also reduced the organic material and nutrient capital, and the ability of soils to capture nutrients for the future. Following broadcast burning of clearcuts, tree planting and subsequent natural regeneration, plantations occurred containing over 1000 conifer trees per acre, consisting of mostly western hemlock and Douglas - fir. These stands reach competitive exclusion stage (CES) around age 20. Precommercial thinning of young stands since the 1960s has attempted to reduce conifer stocking to about 300 trees per acre. Most of these thinnings favored Douglas -fir as the crop species and selected against other species. Commercial thinning of stands over 50 years old was started in 1969, and has been done on 1,391 acres on the National Forest, reducing the conifer stocking to 120 to 170 trees per acre. The number of acres off the National Forest which have been commercially thinned is unknown. These treatments were designed with timber management objectives in mind, which include maintaining stocking levels of crop trees to fully occupy the site and optimize stand growth for wood fiber production. Most of the forest ecosystems over 20 and under 80 years old that have not been commercially thinned remain in CES. This stage is ecologically the most simple and least diverse. When the stands are opened up they enter the understory reinitiation stage (URS) as light stimulates an understory. However, these stands may reenter CES as the overstory redominates the site. After an understory has been established, stands may spend several decades developing the structural diversiry that defines fully functional forests. Over these years, stands evolve through the DUS, BDS, and NDS. The existing fully functional forest (FFS) ecosystem within the analysis area has developed over many years following catastrophic fire and other disturbances. Under these disturbance regimes, post - disturbance environments retained complexity and patchiness. Live trees, dead standing trees, down trees, and areas of live vegetation remained intact on small scales. The soils within these disturbed areas retained reservoirs of live shrubs, seed banks of many species, and mvchorrizal fungi. Given many years of development, these ecosystems are complex and diverse. In general, these forest ecosystems contain elements considered important as habitat for many species. Existing Vegetation Over 90 % of the watershed is forest land (Map 8) with coniferous forest in various ages and stages of structural development (Map 10). The most common species are Douglas -fir, western hemlock, and some western redcedar, with various amounts of red alder inclusions. lost of the public forest land is now in 50- yr. age stands. but still in CES. There has been heavy harvest impact on the private timberlands within the past 10 to 15 years, and many of those acres are in the EIS. Some pasture lands occur in the lowlands, and include stream corridors. ?4 Quantitative Distribution of Forest Development Age 0 -20 Years: There are 7,729 acres of stands under 20 years of age in the analysis area (map 10). This age group approximates the EIS, and is found throughout the watershed. Many of these stands will soon be entering the CES. Subwatershed Acres % of Forested Subwatershed Salmon Creek 3,202 31% Snow Creek 2,363 32% Andrews Creek 1,863 43 % Trapper Creek 301 19% Much of the harvest activity, that produced these EIS stands on the National Forest, included an experimental project in the mid 1980s to harvest and process small size, overstocked, stagnated, "do -hair" forest stands. They were then restocked with trees that could be managed with density control to increase the rate of growth and development of the stands. A; e 21 -80 Years: There are 12.116 acres of stands between 20 and 80 years of age. This group contains stands that have been planted as well as natural stands that have come in following fire. Most of these that have not been thinned can be considered to be in the CES. The managed stands, considered to be URS, typically lack snags and coarse woody debris which would be removed during harvest. Subwatershed Acres %'of Forested Subwatershed Salmon Creek 4,736 46 % Snow Creek 3,921 53 %'0 Andrews Creek 2,322 53% Trapper Creek 1,137 69 0,'0 Age 81 -170 Years: There are 3,1 1 1 acres between ages of 80 and 170 years that have come in naturally following large fires. Much of this, unless thinned, is overstocked, stagnated and still in the CES_ The thinned stands are considered to be URS. Some stands have reached DUS through NDS by the time they have reached 170 years. This area is within the Olympic rainshadow with low rainfall, and poor soils developing from Glacial lacustrine and glacial tills. The forest stands tend to evolve at a very slow rate, though management can speed this up. They initially have dense seedling initiation and low mortality. The unmanaged stands, typically contain more snags and decomposing woody debris left from the past fires than managed forests. Salmon Creek watershed has the most forest in these late - successional stages compared to the other subwatersheds. Subwatershed Acres % of Forested Subwatershed Salmon Creek 1,820 18% Snow Creek 984 13% Andrews Creek 160 4 °10 Trapper Creek 147 90; Age 171 plus Years: There are 675 acres of stands over 171 years of age. These stands came in naturally following large tires and have escaped logging and the smaller historic fires. These stands have not had an management and 25 are developing at a very slow rate. Salmon Creek watershed has the most acres of these older stands considered to be in the URS, DUS, BDS, NDS. and the FFS_ Subwatershed Acres % of Forested Subwatershed Salmon Creek 459 5% Snow Creek 161 2% Andrews Creek 0 0% Trapper Creek » ;% Disturbances Disturbances to the existing vegetation in the Snow /Salmon watershed continue. The most extensive is timber harvest which within the last 5 years has been concentrated on private timber holdings. Insects and pathogens continue their impacts to the forests though in a dispersed manner which is not obvious to the casual observer. Fire has had a minor impact in recent years with little activity. Wind occasionally blows down small stands of trees, though it primarily occurs in or around stands which have had recent harvest activity and have not had a chance become wind resistant. Invasion of non- native plant species is most obvious in colorful populations of bull thistle and tansy ragwort along the road sides. Additional information on non - native plant invasion is not available. One potential pest which is not now within the analysis area is the Asian Gypsy Moth. This species has been found on visiting ships from Asia and hasn't vet managed to become established on this continent. The European Gypsy Moth is a serious forest pest on the east coast. It can travel throughout the country on motor vehicles. Monitoring with pheromone traps for the Gypsy Moth is conducted annually by the State of Washin; ton and immediate action has been taken on any Gypsy Moth infestations. There have been regular infestations in the Puget Sound region which have been exterminated. If either species becomes established it could mean devastation to forest vegetation in the Northwest. Plant Species of Concern Plant species of concern include: I) endangered, threatened, and sensitive plants: 2) survey and manage plants from the Standards and Guidelines for Management of Habitat for Late - successional and Old - growth Forest Related Species Within the Range of the Northern Spotted Owl: 3) endemic plants (those plants with a small, local distribution on the Olympic Peninsula or on Vancouver Island and the Olympic Peninsula): and 4) noxious weeds and other invasive non - native species. - Endangered, Threatened, and Sensitive Vascular Plant Species There are no federally threatened or endangered vascular plant species known or suspected within the two watersheds. Fifteen plant species with the potential to occur in Snow and/or Salmon Creek watersheds are on the current USDA Forest Service Regional Forester's Sensitive Species List (March 199 1) (Table 7). One of these species (Cimicifuga elara) is identified by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service as a Species of Concern. One species is listed by the state as threatened: thirteen species are identified by the state as sensitive: one plant is on the state's Monitor fist_ These species occur in a range of habitats. from subalpine rocky slopes to open forests and bogs. These watersheds contain no alpine and very little subalpine habitat, but there are many bogs and open forests. Therefore, the potential for subalpine plants to occur is limited. but there is extensive habitat for the other species. 26 Table 7- Forest Service Sensitive Plants with Potential to Occur in Snow and Salmon Creek Watersheds Scientific Name Common Name State Status Habitat Astragalus microcystis least bladdery milk -vetch Sensitive subalpine meadow, or scree Botrychium lanceolatum lance- leaved grapefern Sensitive moist open areas Botrychium lunaria moonwort Sensitive open areas, including woods Botrychium minganense Mina an moonwort Monitor forest and meadow Botrychium pinnatum St. John's moonwort Sensitive open areas, including woods Carex paucii fora few - flowered sedge Sensitive sedge meadow or bog Chrysolepis chrvsophvlla golden chinquapin Sensitive open forest Cinticifuga elata tall bugbane Threatened moist forest Claytonia lanceolata var. paciftca Pacific lanceleaf springbeauty Sensitive cliffs and rocks Dryas drummondii yellow mountain -avens cliffs. rocks, and river gravel Montia diffusa branching montia Sensitive open forest Orobanche pinorum pine broomrape Sensitive forest Pleuricosporafimbriolota - -- - - - - - -- fringed pinesap _ _ Sensitive forest Viola renifolia -- - kidney- leaved violet _ moist.forest -_ Woodwardia fimbriata chain -fern Sensitive moist forest, riparian There are no documented occurrences of any of these plants on Forest Service, State, or private lands in Snow and Salmon Creek Watersheds according to the State Natural Heritage Program's database. None of the analysis area has been purposely inventoried for rare plants, however, so the lack of documented sightings must be evaluated in this context. Survey and Manage Species The NWFP survey and manage provisions within the Standards and Guidelines of the NWFP are geared toward conserving a variety of fungi, lichens, bryophytes. vascular plants, and animals associated with late - successional forests. Each species on the list is covered by one or more of four provisions: manage known sites, survey prior to °round- disturbing activities and manage known sites, conduct extensive surveys, and conduct general regional surveys. A list of the plant and fungus species on this list that are known, suspected, or possible in the Snow and Salmon Creek watersheds is available in Appendix ?. For additional information on these species or management provisions, see pages C -4 to C -6 and C -49 to C -61 in the NWFP (USDA and USDI 1994) or Appendix JZ to the NWFP. Two vascular plants on the survey and manage species list are known or suspected in the analysis area: .411optropa virgata (candystick) is known to occur, and Botrychium minganense (Ltingan moonwort) has the potential to occur_ Fund are very important to nutrient cycling. They can be categorized as decomposers, symbionts or parasites. All provide essential ecosystem functions. Decomposers reduce animal and plant remains to simpler components so they can be incorporated into soil. This is an especially important function in old forests. Symbionts include the mycorrhizal fungi on which most conifers and flowering plants rely. These species supply the host plant with water and nutrients and protect it from root disease. The parasites eventually kill the vegetation they parasitize, which creates canopy holes. Fruiting bodies of fungi are an essential food source for many insects and small mammals, including flying squirrels. 27 Lichens are a symbiotic association between fungi and algae. In some cases the algae symbiont is capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen into organic form, which becomes available to other plants. Flying squirrels, deer and elk all consume lichens and birds often use them for nesting material. Some lichens are sensitive air pollution indicators. Bryophytes include hornworts, liverworts and mosses. Bryophytes can constitute a substantial portion of the understory biomass. They provide food and habitat for many invertebrates. Birds and small mammals often use moss for nesting material. Marbled murrelets frequently select limbs with moss as nest sites. Unfortunately very little is known about most fungi, lichens, and mosses. Survey protocol and management direction for all survey and manage plant species is being developed by interagency working groups at the Regional level. Endemic Vascular Plant Species There are 15 endemic vascular plant species found on the Olympic Peninsula, six of which also occur on Vancouver Island (Buckingham et al 1990. Based on habitat and existing documented ranges of these species, six have the potential to occur in Snow and/or Salmon Creek watersheds (Table 8). Table 8. Endemic Vascular Plant Species with the Potential to Occur in the Analysis Area Scientific Name Habitat Occurrence Campanula piperi montane, subalpine, alpine; rocky possible Claytonia lanceolata var. paciftca - subalpine; rocky -- possible Erigeron flettii subalpine to alpine; open possible Petrophytum hendersonii montane, subalpine, alpine; rocky possible Sarifraga tischii subalpine, alpine; rocky possible Viola fletii subalpine, alpine: rocky possible .Noxious Weeds And Otter Invasive Non - :Native Species Several noxious weeds, as defined by the State Noxious Weed List and Schedule of :4lonetary Penalties (Chapter 16 -750 WAC), are known or believed to occur in the analysis areas. Spotted knap,.eed (Centaurea maculosa) is a Class B noxious weed. Common St. lohnswort (Hypericum perforatum), bull thistle (Cirsium vulgare), Canada thistle (Cirsium arvense) and common tansy (Tanaceill"I vulgare) are Class C noxious weeds. All of these species, and noxious weeds in general, are most likely to occur in highly disturbed situations such as roadsides, agricultural or urban lands, or new clearcuts. No Class A noxious weeds are known in the area. There may be other species present that have not been reported. Invasive non - native species that are not considered noxious weeds are numerous. These species were discussed briefly as a disturbance factor earlier in this analysis_ As with noxious weeds, other invasive non - native species are most common in disturbed situations where they displace native species. Wildlife Conditions Vegetative conditions in the Salmon and Snow Creek watersheds are more consistent than in other areas on the District, but are still diverse and complex. The condition of vegetation in a watershed is a primary factor influencing wildlife diversity. Those processes that have shaped the vegetation in the Snow and Salmon Creek watersheds (fire, wind, timber harvest, urbanization, etc.) have subsequently impacted what wildlife species use the watersheds and their population trends. Habitats in Snow and Salmon Creek watersheds range from agricultural and estuarine through the many stages of forest development to small patches of late- successional forest. As a result of this diversity, the two watersheds currently support populations of a wide variety of wildlife species. 28 Other factors and processes also affect what wildlife species can successfully inhabit a watershed. The - hydrology of the area impacts nearly all species, since they all require water in some form for survival. Most impacted are riparian dependent species, such as many molluscs and amphibians, on whom changes in stream flow, sedimentation, and temperature can have a substantial impact. Climate affects wildlife diversity directly, as well as through its impacts on vegetation. Cold, snowy winters are hard for many species, as are hot, dry summers. Roads can affect wildlife species in several ways. They may provide an easy travel corridor for some species; for others they are barriers to migration. Every year individuals from several species are killed by vehicles on roads, and roads increase the opportunities for human - wildlife interactions. It is not possible to list or discuss all the species that can be found in these watersheds. Instead this module will focus on those species whose population status is of concern, those with particular sociological values, and species groups that are considered management indicators. All other species will be dealt with as members of habitat - related guilds. Table 9. Wildlife Analysis Species/Groups Species /Group Classification StatusiTrend Northern Spotted Owl Federal threatened, Declining in near -term: possibly stable in State endangered long -term - Marbled Murrelet Federal threatened Declining State threatened Bald Eagle Federal threatened Stable or increasing across most of U.S. State threatened Increasing on the Olympic Peninsula Peregrine Falcon Federal endangered Increasina or stable across most of U.S. State endangered California Wolverine Species of concern Unknown, likely declining Cascades Frog Species of concern Declining Harlequin Duck Game species Declining in some areas: unknown on Oly. Peninsula Long -eared Mvotis Species of concern Unknown Long - legged Mvotis Species of concern Unknown Northern Goshawk Species of concern; State Declining in some areas of range: candidate; neotropical migrant unknown on Oly Peninsula Olive -sided Flycatcher Species of concern Unknown Pacific Fisher Species of concern Declining in some areas: likely extirpated from Oly. Peninsula Pacific Western Species of concern Declining in some areas of PNW: Big -eared Bat unknown on Oly. Peninsula Tailed frog Species of concern Declining locally Nine Mollusc Species NWFP Survev and manage Unknown species Roosevelt Elk Management indicator species; Stable: east -side Olympic Peninsula Game species populations low Neotropical ;Migratory Management indicator species Variable by species, with mane unknown Birds group Cavity Dependent Management indicator species Variable by species, with many unknown Species group 29 Threatened and Endangered Species Five species will be considered in this analysis that are currently listed by the U.S. Fish, and Wildlife Service under the Endangered Species Act as either endangered or threatened: the northern spotted owl, marbled murrelet, bald eagle, peregrine falcon, and gray wolf. The first three are known to occur in the Salmon and Snow Creek watersheds. Peregrines are a potential species and wolves have been extirpated. Population status, habitat conditions, and potential management for the four species that may occur in the watersheds is especially important because all are at risk of extinction if not managed properly. Information on the location of individuals for these species is classified as sensitive and is only available to partner agencies, upon request. Northern Spotted Owl Genera! information The northern spotted owl was federally listed as threatened in June, 1990, under the Endangered Species Act, and state listed as threatened due to declining populations and habitat loss. The primary requirements to ensure spotted owl population viability are maintenance of suitable nesting habitat and retention of adequate dispersal habitat for use by non - breeding birds. There is a well - documented history of issues relating to management of the northern spotted owl that are not reviewed in this report. Although spotted owls have been found using a wide variety of habitat types, studies over the last couple decades have shown their strong association with and preference for late- successional forest habitat. Forest areas used by spotted owls for nesting, roosting, and foraging (suitable habitat) typically have large diameter ( >30 ") trees and snags with broken tops and cavities, moderate to high levels of snags and down wood, sufficient understory to support prey, and at least 40% canopy closure. Owls also require areas through which they can travel and where non - breeding birds can roost and forage. Requirements for this dispersal habitat are less well known. The best available information indicates stands must have an average diameter of at least I 1 inches and a minimum of 40% canopy closure. A higher canopy cover may be desirable to increase foraging capability and reduce competition from and predation by larger raptors. As with suitable habitat, there must be sufficient structural diversity to provide habitat for prey species, such as flying squirrels, Douglas squirrels and other small mammals. Reference conditions Information on the status of spotted owl populations within the Salmon and Snow Creek watersheds was nearly non - existent prior to the early 1980's. Most survey work in this area has been done since 1987, so historic populations levels are not documented. A complete, on- the - ground inventory of suitable and dispersal spotted owl habitat does not exist for any land ownership in the analysis area. As discussed in the Vegetation Module of this analysis. late- successionat forest has been limited in both watersheds throuzhout historic times due to the effects of wildfires. Development of late - successional forest characteristics required by spotted owls for nesting, such as large diameter trees and snags and substantial coarse woody debris, would just be starting 200 years after a fire, when the next wildfire would take place (Page 14). Those areas that survived the tires were largely in riparian areas and were limited in size and distribution. Some individual trees survived a tire, becoming remnant large trees in an otherwise young stand. In these instances, mid - successional forests with remnant trees may have been able to provide nesting habitat for spotted owls. In the past. both watersheds probably provided substantial dispersal habitat for spotted owls. but very little suitable nesting habitat. Based on this information, northern spotted owl populations in the Snow and Salmon Creek watersheds were likely limited to transient and territorial singles, with pairs late in the fire cycle. 30 Current conditions Although natural wildfire has not substantially affected the analysis area in more than 100 %cars, timber harvest, human settlement, and human - caused wildfires have impacted forest conditions. Currently, the Snow and Salmon Creek Watersheds support two known activity centers. An additional six activity centers are known to occur within 2.7 miles of the watershed analysis area. A substantial portion of the estimated home range for these activity centers falls within the two watersheds. All eight activity centers have been mapped in GIS. The map includes a 2.7 mile buffer around each activity center, which approximates the home range size for spotted owls on the Olympic Peninsula, and a 0.7 mile buffer that estimates the core area .around an activity center that an owl will defend (territory). Site locations of spotted owls are sensitive information and are only available to cooperating state and federal agencies. Known pairs and individuals on Forest Service land are monitored annually by the FS Pacific Northwest Research Station. New pairs are not actively sought on Forest Service or state lands unless management is proposed that might impact an area of unsurveyed suitable habitat. Therefore, the total population in the analvsis area is not known. An estimate of owl populations based on known distribution and suitable habitat was not calculated for this analysis. Reproductive trends are examined in Table 10. This table displays the known reproductive history for all documented spotted owl territories on National Forest land within 2.7 miles of Snow and Salmon Creek watersheds. The table also provides information on the type of occupation in the territory (reproduction, confirmed pair, territorial single, or single). Years with no existing data are noted on the table by a blank space, either because the owl territory had not yet been monitored or established, or because no owl presence was observed that year. PNW biologists survey territories for 3 years after the last sighting. If no birds are found, surveys cease. Map I 1 displays the current distribution of northern spott ed owl suitable and dispersal habitat in the Snow and Salmon Watersheds. Stand age data was retrieved from the Quilcene Ranger District GIS database on Forest, from the Department of Natural Resources for state lands, and predominantly from the PSCRBT's data for privately -owned lands. Suitable nesting, roosting, and foraging habitat on this map was determined by selecting all stands believed to have originated as a result of or prior to the 1364 wildfire (125+ years old). Based on knowledge of the stands identified and local stand development characteristics, 125 years seemed an appropriate starting point. On Forest Service lands, stands were deleted or added to the map based on knowledge of individual stand structure. Such detailed knowledge off- Forest was _ lacking. so no alterations were made on state and private lands. Because age is not a guarantee of stand structure, some areas identified as habitat may not be suitable for nesting yet. It is also possible that some younger stands that contain remnant trees from previous stands are suitable habitat, but were not identified on the map. T_LI_ to Reproductive history for activity centers w /in 2.7 miles of Snow and Salmon Creek Watersheds Owl= 1984 1933 1986 1987 1983 1 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 ` 1994 1995 2001 R P T 2006 T 2019 R- P R R P R P 2021 S P P T T( P P 2029 P T S 2084 T 2128 R R -P S f 2132 T R R S S P owl a = Ulvntpic 7Natlonai i-orest nonncrn spoucu uwi nunwcl uulu j 1 mt- I3iv . �•� W- P = Pair. no reproduction confirmed R = Reproduction continued T = Territorial single S = Sinele Bold Type indicates most recent year activity center was confirmed 3l Of the 25,016 acres in the Snow and Salmon Creek Watersheds, 1,354 acres are identified as suitable spotted owl habitat, which constitutes 5.5 percent of the watersheds. Of the 1,334 acres of suitable nesting habitat, 30 acres (2 %) are on state lands, 370 acres (63 %) are on private lands, and 4S4 acres (35 %) are managed by the ONF. Of those 434 acres on the National Forest, 373 acres are now in designated LSR; and I I I acres are in AMA. The limited quantity of suitable habitat in the analysis area implies that Snow and Salmon Creek watersheds do not provide well for this species. The distribution of that limited habitat across the landscape ensures it. All of the suitable habitat in the two watersheds is in small patches ( <10 -365 acres) with extensive areas in between. Even if owls find areas suitable for nesting, there may not be enough habitat available nearby to support them. The quantity of suitable nesting habitat within 2.7 and 0.7 miles of the activity center is important in determining the potential impacts of future management within those buffers. Under the Endangered Species Act, management will result in "taking" a spotted owl if that management reduces suitable habitat quantities below the level needed to support an owl or pair of owls. To be above this "take threshold ", more than 40% (5,708 acres) of the area within 2.7 miles and 500 acres of the area within 0.7 miles of the activity center must be suitable habitat. Habitat alteration within the home range of activity centers not - meeting this threshold could harm the owl(s). Neither of the two spotted owl activity centers in the analysis area are above the take threshold (Tables l I and 12). Habitat alteration near these centers should be planned carefully. Table I I - Acres of owl habitat within 2.7 miles of known activity centers Owl site ONF, LSR ONF, AMA State and Private Total acres 2029 341 114 64 519 2132 1093 234 39 1426 Table 12 - Acres of owl habitat within 0.7 miles of known activity centers Owl site ONF, LSR ONF, ANIMA State and Private Total acres 2029 5 5 0 10 2132 153 8 2S ! 189 Dispersal habitat, like suitable habitat, was identified using stand age. In other analyses, all stands in the early -mid and mid- successional serai stages were identified as dispersal habitat. In the Snow and Salmon watersheds, this would include some stands that are only 30 years old. It was determined that such young stands would not have the desired average diameter or structural components that are important in dispersal habitat. Therefore, a more likely age of 55 years was used to map potential dispersal habitat. On state and private land, most of these stands probably provide dispersal habitat because they have been managed for timber production, which encourages optimal development of size and allows some understory necessary for prey species. On- Forest those stands that have been commercially thinned should provide similar dispersal habitat. These 55 year old stands may have somewhat limited prey populations because they lack down wood and snags that squirrels and small mammals require. By contrast. many stands that have not been managed since they originated are still densely stocked and have not evolved to the point of providing even dispersal habitat. Therefore, as with the suitable habitat delineation, some stands that are identified as dispersal habitat may not be functioning as such yet. Within the Snow and Salmon Creek Watersheds, 14.519 acres are identified as spotted owl dispersal habitat, which constitutes 53 percent of the two watersheds. Of this area, 4335 acres (30 %) are on state lands. 3,952 (27 °0) are on private lands, and 6,179 acres (43 %) are managed by the ONF. Of those 6,179 acres on the National Forest, 1,623 acres are now in designated LSR; and 4,556 acres are in AMA. Because any habitat suitable for nesting also will provide for owl dispersal needs. the 14.519 acres of dispersal habitat includes the 1,334 acres that are suitable for nestina. As stated earlier, the distribution of habitat across the landscape has a substantial impact on the ability of owls to use available habitat. Not only must suitable nesting, roosting, and foraging habitat be available in sufficiently large blocks to support a nesting pair, but these areas of suitable habitat need to be connected by dispersal habitat. Youn; need areas that will support them during their subadult period. It is more likely that the juveniles will find such areas if they are near their original nest. If they have to travel outside dispersal habitat for substantial distances looking for habitat, the chances of predation and starvation increase dramatically. Poor distribution of dispersal habitat in relation to suitable habitat might also force juveniles to disperse to poor quality habitat, which decreases their chances of survival to breeding age. Dispersal areas also should connect to additional areas of suitable habitat. That way, when owls begin to search for a nesting territory, they do not have to travel across extensive areas of non - habitat where the risks of mortality are high. Spotted owl dispersal distances from 1991 and 1992 PNW radio - telemetry studies for the Olympic Peninsula were as follows (Forsman pers. comm.): N =31 Mean 24.21 km (15.04 mi.) Median 20.69 km. (12.86 mi.) Range 8.67 to 58.24 km. (5.39 to 36.19 mi.) It should be noted that management of both current, recruitment, and dispersal owl habitat will be different on state and private lands than on Forest Service lands. It is likely that much of the state and private forest land will be harvested over the next several years, while on Forest Service lands, harvest will be infrequent. Therefore, it is particularly important for the Forest Service to provide sufficient habitat to support the existing activity centers and provide for the continuance of the species. Lintitina,factors As indicated by map I I and acreages provided above, the primary limiting factor for northern spotted owls in the Snow and Salmon Creek watersheds is the availability and distribution of suitable nesting, roosting, and foraging habitat. The intense, periodic fires of historic times resulted in a relatively uniform landscape when settlers came. Since then, timber harvest, conversion to agriculture, and fires have prevented the development of late- successional forest across most of the landscape, and have actually resulted in much more young forest than might naturally be available at this point in time. In addition, much of the currently suitable habitat is highly fragmented. Many small patches show up on map I I that are adjacent to forest that is neither suitable nor dispersal habitat for owls. This means that the few acres of suitable habitat available have a reduced ability to provide for spotted owl nesting. It is likely, given the high proportion of the analysis area that is managed by private landowners and the State, that the availability of late - successional forest will continue to be a limiting factor for owls in the decades to come. Forest Service Opportunities Retainina existing habitat into the future should be a high priority in the analysis area. In addition, current silvicultural techniques supply us with numerous opportunities to improve forest conditions for the northern spotted owl. Areas that are dispersal habitat now can be managed to develop large diameter trees and snags more rapidly than might be natural. Standing trees can be felled to provide down wood for prey species. Cavities can be created to provide habitat for prey species and owls. Priority among these opportunities should be given to managing those stands closest to existing activity centers to improve the chances that those birds will survive and reproduce successfully. Next consideration should go to those stands lacking oniv one or two elements to become habitat, such as second growth forest lacking snags or down wood. Finally, attention should be given to developing young stands into dispersal and suitable habitat as quickly as possible where these coals are deemed desirable within the analysis area. Within this category, emphasis should be placed on developing stands adjacent to those that are currently suitable to expand the size of suitable habitat patches and provide connective dispersal habitat in the meantime. tIN'larbled Murrelet General information ;tilarbled murrelets were federally listed as threatened in September, 1992, under the Endangered Species Act. and state listed as threatened due to declining populations and loss of habitat. Marbled murrelets feed and spend most of their lives on salt water, but they nest in forest habitats. The nesting season in Washington is from April to mid - September. Murrelets generally nest in low - elevation old - growth or late - successional forest habitats with multiple canopies and moderate ( -50 %) canopy closure (Hamer and Nelson 1995). Murrelets tend to nest in the oldest trees in the stand, since these are most likely to provide natural and /or mistletoe infected limbs with a diameter of five inches or greater. These branches, which are often covered in moss and duff, are used as nesting platforms. Small forest fragments are not typically used for nesting due to risks from wind and increased predation at stand edges. Nests in fragmented stands and those near human activity may be at the greatest risk of predation from corvid species. The marbled murrelet population has been estimated at 5.000 in the state of Washington (Ralph et al 1995). Historical numbers are thought to have been higher. Removal of nesting habitat by timber harvest is considered to be a primary factor in population decline (Federal Register 1992). Other factors that may contribute, now or in the future, to population decline include: predation, reduced prey populations, oil pollution, entanglement in gill nets, and proposed offshore oil development along the Washington coast (Ralph et al 1995, Federal Register 1992). Since marbled murrelet reproductive rates are low, with one egg laid per year and high rates of predation, recovery is slow from population declines (Nelson and Hamer 1995). It is suspected that marbled murrelets have a variable reproductive rate where all adults may not nest every year. Reference and Current conditions Intensive murrelet nesting surveys have been conducted on the Quilcene Ranger District since 1990. Little was known about murrelet activity on the District prior to this time. Survey work has been conducted using recommended protocols (Ralph et al. 1994) and will continue as budgets permit. Objectives for these survevs are to determine which stands murrelets are using for nesting, so protection can be provided for those stands and the birds using them, and which stands are not used for nesting, so that management need not be restricted for murrelets in these areas. Information gathered through these surveys has been shared with researchers and the WDFW for use in analyses of survey protocols and habitat use. In 1995 and .1996, habitat data was gathered in several surveyed stands to aid in analysis of murrelet habitat selection. Two stations have been surveyed in the Salmon Creek watershed. Both are on the 2340 -130 road, and they were surveyed to protocol in 1995 and 1996. Murrelets were detected at one station during the-1996 surveys. In addition to these stations, four occupied sites are located within 0.5 miles of the analysis area. The NWFP (USDA and USDI 1994) requires that all contiguous suitable (nesting) and recruitment habitat within 0.5 miles of an occupied murrelet site be protected. No timber harvest is allowed in these areas. Any silvicultural treatments in other forest habitats in the 0.5 mile circle must protect or enhance suitable and recruitment habitat. Therefore, these four occupied sites will have an impact on how 104 acres of Forest Service land within Salmon Creek watershed can be managed under the NWFP. ` ;Map 12 shows suitable nesting habitat for marbled murrelets in the analysis area. Because information on the availability of suitable platforms in individual stands is not available for most of the analysis area, the suitable spotted owl habitat layer was used for murrelets as well. There are probably areas that are shown as habitat that do not contain suitable platforms yet. Extensive field verification is necessary to improve" this map. Of the 25.016acres in the Snow and Salmon Creek Watersheds. 1,354 acres (5.5 %)are identified as suitable murrelet habitat. Of the 1,354 acres of suitable nesting habitat, 900 acres (65 %) are on state and private 34 lands and 434 acres (35 %) are managed by the ONF. On the National Forest, 373 acres of suitable habitat are now in designated LSR, and 1 I I acres are in AMA. As with spotted owls, all of the suitable habitat available to nesting murrelets in the two watersheds is in small patches ( <10 -365 acres) with extensive areas of unsuitable habitat in between. This fragmentation reduces the amount of usable habitat for murrelets, since the edges adjacent to young stands tend to have increased winds, reduced protective cover, and increased potential for predation by crows, jays, and Douglas squirrels. Even in habitat areas identified as occupied adjacent to the analysis area, it is uncertain whether murrelets using these stands are producing young that fledge. Increasing the size of habitat patches would substantially increase the likelihood of successful reproduction. Surveys of marine birds in Puget Sound have been limited, but have gathered some data on murrelet populations and habitat use. Speich and Wahl (1995) summarize these survey efforts and their results. Discovery Bay is one of the locations that was surveyed. Murrelet densities were highest during the fall (2.5 birds /sq km in Sequim and Discovery Bays). Winter densities in these bays (0.92 birds /sq km) were higher than other areas of deep, open water that were surveyed. Murrelets are known to forage in Discovery Bay and the near -shore waters of the Strait of Juan de Fuca and Hood Canal Litnitina factors The principal limiting factor for marbled murrelets in these watersheds is suitable nesting habitat. As shown on Map 12, neither Snow Creek nor Salmon Creek watershed contain substantial areas of late - successional forest habitat. What little habitat is available is in small pieces, much of it adjacent to relatively young stands. This fragmentation decreases the quality of the habitat. Murrelets are thought to prefer large, contiguous blocks of habitat, which provide nesting opportunities for several pairs, the necessary canopy closure, and protection from wind and predation. As discussed for spotted owls, it is likely that this lack of suitable habitat will continue for many decades, especially off National Forest lands. Other factors limiting murrelet populations may have little to do with management of the watersheds. These include prey population levels (which may be impacted by water quality in Discovery Bay) and natural reproductive rates. As indicated on page 91 of this analysis, herring populations in Discovery Bay have been declining dramatically in recent years for an unknown reason. Herring are a primary prey for murrelets. This reduction in populations could directly affect murrelet populations and would certainly reduce the number of murrelets using Discovery Bay. Forest Service Opportunities As with spotted owls, the greatest opportunities for management are in protecting and developing suitable nesting habitat. Particularly in those areas identified as Late - Successional Reserve by the NWFP and those areas encompassed by occupied site buffers, it is important to manage the forest to provide suitable habitat as quickly as possible. Additional areas may identified across the landscape where it is desirable to develop late - successional forest. It would be best if priority is given to those areas that are contiguous to existing habitat so they will eventually provide large blocks of habitat. The other opportunity available to positively impact murrelet populations is the conservation of fish populations in Discovery Bay. Throughout the year, murrelets are known to spend time foraging in Discovery Bay. Declines in prey populations in the Bay could impact murrelet population levels. Bald Eagle General information Bald eagles have been the nation's symbol since 1372. In 1973. they were federally listed as threatened under the Endangered Species Act and they are listed as threatened by the State. Bald eagles are also protected under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act (1913), Eagle Protection Act (1940). and Lacey Act (1901 }: 35 Recent surveys indicate an increase in bald eagle populations throughout much of the country since they were listed, and they can still be found through most of their historic range in the Pacific Northwest. For several decades, bald eagle populations declined throughout most of their range. Factors in this decline included: habitat alteration, shooting, nest disturbance, poisoning by chemical use in the drainage (air and water pollution), contamination and elimination of prey, electrocution on powerlines, noise disturbance associated with logging, recreation and other human use (USFWS 1986). Bald eagles typically nest in one of the largest, tallest trees in a forest stand; trees that can provide support fora heavy nest, an open flight path, and a view of potential prey. The nests are almost always within sight of water (USFWS 1986). Bald eagles show extremely strong fidelity to a nest site. Some pairs build two or more nests within their territory and alternate between them from year to year. Along with one or more nests, bald eagle territories typically contain several snags, trees with exposed branches, and/or trees with dead tops. These structures provide perches, vantage points for foraging and territory defense, and access to and from the nest. Winter perch and roost sites are typically in mature or old - growth habitat, usually associated with water, and may be communal. Availability of prey resources is a determining factor of wintering patterns. Reference and Current Conditions Based on historical factors such as habitat distribution and prey base, bald eagle populations may have been higher in the past than at present. Past population estimates for the Snow and Salmon Watersheds are not available. On the Olympic Peninsula, a primary prey is salmon. Throughout the year, salmon runs return to streams to spawn and die. Eagles are frequently seen at the mouths of rivers and concentration points along streams, hunting the returning salmon and feeding on the carcasses that wash down from spawning erounds. In recent years, numbers of returning salmon have declined and three of four runs in Snow and Salmon Creeks are identified as depressed or critical status (Page 89). Midwinter aerial and ground surveys for bald eagles were conducted annually by the WDFW and Quilcene Ranger District from 1991 -1995. Surveys in the Snow and Salmon watersheds focused on non - federal lands, where eagles are more prevalent, and resulted in sightings of two adult eagles near Crocker Lake in 1991. There is one historic bald eagle territory in the analysis area. No nesting activity has been observed at this site in either 1994 or 1995. In addition to this territory, four other eagle territories are known within a couple miles of the watersheds. Birds from these territories use Discovery Bay for foraging and may use Snow and Salmon Creeks. ivlost likely they are impacted by the effects of management in the analysis area on Discovery Bay_ WDFW currently monitors the status and productivity of all five territories. Limiting factors The primary limiting factors for bald eagles are suitable nesting habitat and preferred prey populations. On the Olympic Peninsula, »% of known bald eagle nest territories are within 150 feet of a shoreline (Ament pers Comm), most likely because of the easy access to good foraging sites, such as estuaries. In the Snow and Salmon Creek watersheds, nearly all the land around the estuary at Discovery Bay has been turned to agriculture, housing, or business and is devoid of the trees eagles require for perching, roosting, and nesting. Around Crocker Lake, timber harvest, housing development, and transportation corridors have reduced the amount of suitable habitat substantially over the past couple of decades. It is possible that loss of habitat in these areas will force eagles to use inland habitat, such as that provided on National Forest lands. Eagles using inland habitat would be required to expend more energy to feed. 36 As mentioned above, populations of salmon species have been declining in recent years. This decline means there is less of the bald eagle's primary prey available. To survive, eagles may be forced to rely on non -fish prey species, such as waterfowl and small mammals, which are typically just an opportunistic dietary supplement. For eagle populations to improve, salmon populations need to increase. Recreational use of open waters, particularly motorboats, may negatively impact eagle foraging in those areas. It is not likely that eagles will completely abandon a good feeding area solely because of boat traffic, but they may be temporarily displaced from a site when recreational use is high. Opportunities Management to maintain or improve the salmon runs in Snow and Salmon Creeks will benefit bald eagles Care should be taken to protect water quality in Discovery Bay and all bodies of open water. Eagles can be dramatically impacted by contamination of prey, as well as decreasing prey populations, that may result from poor water quality. Any management to provide even small stands of large trees near the Bay, lakes, and wetlands may increase nesting, roosting, and foraging opportunities for eagles. ��Ianagement to provide late- successional forest habitat will provide suitable habitat that may be used if eagles are forced out of areas nearer their foraging grounds in the lowlands. Peregrine Falcon Genera! Information The peregrine falcon was federally listed as endangered in 1970 under the Endangered Species Conservation Act, and is state listed as endangered. The primary cause of peregrine population declines is the use of ornanochlorine pesticides, particularly DDT (Pacific Coast... Recovery Team 1932). Concentrations of these chemicals resulted in eggshell thinning that reduced peregrine reproduction substantially. DDT and dieldrin were banned in the United States in 1972. Through their continued use in Central and South American countries, where migratory prey and some peregrines winter, and latent concentrations of similar chemicals in U.S. soils, DDT and dieldrin continue to affect peregrine populations that breed in the United States (Pagel and Jarman 1991). Peregrines nest on ledges and potholes in vertical cliffs. Access to an avian prey base nearby is essential, since birds are the primary food of peregrines. Reference and Current conditions Within the Snow and Salmon watersheds, there are no known cliffs that are suitable for peregrine falcon nesting, nor have there ever been such cliffs available in these drainages. There was a possible sighting of a peregrine falcon on the west -side of Mt. Zion in 1936. Surveys of the ivit. Zion cliffs in 1935 -90 and 1995 -96 resulted in no peregrine detections. Given that NIt. Zion is the western boundary of Snow Creek watershed, anv falcons that use the cliffs on the west side of `1t. Zion for nesting, foragin„ or soaring, might use portions of the analysis area. Based on habitat quality and the lack of confirmed sightings, any such use is not substantial. Infrequently, peregrines may use other nesting substrates, such as skyscrapers and trees. The first is not available in the analysis area and trees are used so rarely that it should not be evaluated as a possibility unless it is discovered to be a reality in a given area. Limiting factors The lack of cliffs suitable for nesting is the primary limiting factor for peregrines. Without suitable cliffs, other potentially limiting conditions are of little importance to the species, unless an area is a known concentration point for juveniles, which the analysis area is not. 37 Opportunities Land owners cannot create cliffs where they do not already exist. Opportunities to improve other species requirements, such as prey -base, will not benefit falcons unless there is suitable nesting habitat that may be used and /or known concentrations of non - breeding falcons. Neither alternative is the case in the analysis area. If peregrines ever use Mt. Zion for nesting, an eyrie management plan should consider the potential for use of the Snow Creek watershed. Cray Wolf The gray wolf was federally listed as endangered in 1967 under the Endangered Species Preservation Act and is state listed as endangered. Wolves are native to the Olympic Peninsula, but were extirpated in the late 1920's or early 1930's as a result of shooting, poisoning, and reduction in their prey base (Big Quilcene Watershed Analysis 1994). A discussion of the history of the gray wolf in the Olympic mountains, as well as a list of historical wolf sightings or suspected wolf presence may be found in "A Case Study for Species Reintroduction: The Wolf in Olympic National Park, Washington" (Dratch et al. 1975). Wolves are known to occur in the Cascades. The Olympic Peninsula is, practically, an inaccessible island for most mammals: three sides are salt water and the fourth is blocked by large tracts of urban and agricultural lands. Wolves are not likely to ever naturally return to the Olympics. Candidate Species and Species of Concern In addition to those species that are currently listed under the Endangered Species Act, one species with the potential to occur in the Salmon and Snow Creek watersheds (the bull trout) is a candidate for federal listing. This means the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) has sufficient information to propose the species for listing as threatened or endangered. Another 10 species are identified by the USFWS as Species of Concern_ These species are believed to be at risk of requiring listing as threatened or endangered if efforts are not made to conserve them; USFWS is gathering additional information before listing them as candidates. Management that may impact these species should consider the potential for pushing any of them toward federal listing as threatened or endangered. Candidate species information about the status of this species has been reviewed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and that agency has determined that there is sufficient evidence to indicate that listing them as threatened or endangered is appropriate. Bull Trout (Salvelirrus cotrfluentus) - The only Candidate species known to occur on the Quilcene Ranger District. It is not suspected of occurring in the Salmon or Snow Creek watersheds because the stream habitat is not of the pristine nature that the species typically requires. Species of Concern There is some evidence that these species are at risk of endangerment if they are not protected, but more analvsis is needed to determine if their situation warrants listing under the Endangered Species Act. California Wolverine (Gulo gulo luteus) - Known on the Olympic from historic sightings on the Hood Canal District, this species is solitary, secretive, and usually found away from human activity. Little is known about its habitat requirements, except that large ungulate carrion is an important food. particularly in winter months. Nlost known populations spend a portion of the year in subalpine and alpine habitat (Ruggiero et al 1990. Based on this limited information, the potential for wolverines in the analysis area is low. Montane habitat is limited to a small area on i'vtt. Zion, and almost the entire area is accessed by roads, resulting in high potential for human activity. Historically, lowland habitat might have been better (more isolated), but the lack of subalpine habitat would have limited the potential for wolverines even then. Wolverines have probably never occurred in the analysis area, unless by random wandering" ;S Cascades Frog (Rana cascadae) - Documented on the Olympic National Forest. Although historic records show it once occurred near sea level on the Olympic Peninsula, nearly all known locations throughout its current range are above 2,000 feet elevation (Leonard et al 1993). This species inhabits small ponds, lakes, bogs, swamps, and marshes, particularly those adjacent to streams. Not known to occur in the analysis area, but appropriate surveys have not been conducted. Management to meet the Aquatic Conservation Strategy objectives of the N WFP will go far in providing for the species on National Forest lands. Long -eared Myotis (Myotis evotis) and Long - legged Myotis_(1Vfyotis vofalts) - Surveys for bats were conducted on the Quilcene District in 1993 and 1994. In 1993. Hedwall detected hfyotis species, most of which are not individually discernible by echolocation call recording, at a stream site in Snow Creek and a bog in Salmon Creek watershed. In 1994, White used mist -nets in addition to the echolocation call recorder at several of Hedwall's sites to try to identify the Myotis species present. Both sites in the analysis area were revisited. At the bog, a long-eared bat was captured. Myotis calls were recorded at both sites. At a site just west of Snow Creek watershed, a long-legged myotis was captured. Based on these studies. both of these bat species should be considered present in the Snow and Salmon Creek watersheds. Both species use crevices in large snags and trees, caves, mines, and buildings as day and/or maternity roost sites (USDA and USDIa 1994). Suitable trees may be in old growth forest or younger forests that have remnant large trees or snags. Even large snags within recently harvested stands can provide suitable habitat. Rock crevices, caves, mines, and buildings are used as night and winter roosts (USDA and USDIa 1994). Bats seem to select roosts based primarily on temperature regime. Both myotis species forage over mature forests, streams, and wetlands and use stream corridors as travelways. For this reason, suitable roost sites near open water are of particular importance. Although limited in number after intense wildfires, large trees and snags were more prevalent across the landscape historically than they are after timber harvest practices of the last few decades. Caves, mines, and even rock crevices are, and always have been, limited in the analysis area. Buildings have become more prevalent, but many are now designed to limit access and desirability to species such as bats. Conversion of vegetation along streams and near wetlands through timber harvest and agricultural development has negatively impacted these areas for foraging. The same is true for use of these areas as travelways. All in all, suitable habitat for these bat species has been reduced since timber harvest began. Retaining snags and large remnant trees, creating snags where none or few exist, and promoting growth of large trees will provide suitable day and maternity roosting habitat. Limiting use of cliffs, rock outcroppings, and caves in and adjacent to the watersheds will conserve existing night and winter roosts. if roosts are located. special consideration should be given to management in the area. Meeting aquatic conservation objectives in riparian areas and wetlands should provide for sufficient foraging habitat and movement corridors. Northern Cosha«-k (Accipiter;entifis) - Known to occur in the Snow Creek watershed and suspected of occurring in the Salmon Creek watershed, this species has been proposed for listing more than once. It has been left as a species of concern due to insufficient information showing that western populations, about _ which there is concern, are distinct from east -coast populations. which appear to be doing well. Goshawks typically use mature forests for nesting and much of their foraging. Nest stands need to contain several large trees with branches or other platforms that can support a nest, high canopy closure (60 -90 %), a sufficient prey base, a sparse understory and space between trees to allow this large captor to maneuver and forage effectively (Marshall 1992). Goshawks may also forage along forest edges and in adjacent young plantations and may defend their territory aggressively from animals and humans alike. Prior to logging activity in the analysis area, suitable habitat for goshawks was more prevalent, at least on a cyclical fire - related basis (similar to habitat for owls and murrelets). Remnant trees in younger stands may provide the nesting substrate requirements, enabling forests to provide for goshawks within 30 -120 years 39 of a fire. In more recent times, timber harvest has not provided remnant trees, so logged stands are not likely to be suitable for goshawks for more than 100 -150 years, even with intensive management. The known nest site in Snow Creek has been monitored in recent years by the WDFW. In 1995, a female was seen near the nest, but there was no evidence of nesting. The site in Salmon Creek watershed at which goshawks are suspected needs to be monitored by State or Forest Service personnel to determine its status. Management of the Late - successional Reserve will provide habitat for the goshawk in the LSR. In the Adaptive Management Area, where the known nest territory is located, efforts to test methods for developing forests into late - successional habitat through management will support goshawks. Under the Olympic National Forest Plan (USDA 1990), known raptor nests receive protection from both habitat manipulation and disturbance. Olive -sided Flycatcher (Contopus borealis) - Known to occur in the analysis area. Although found in second - growth stands and even clearcuts, this species appears to rely on mature coniferous and mixed forest stands (Sharp 1992). Use of clearcuts is unclear, but these birds are known to forage for insects from snags or trees above openings and in stands of varying ages. Therefore, presence of snags and tall trees with perch branches is important. Not a lot else is known about habitat requirements of this species. As with other species that prefer mature forest habitat for a portion of their life history, habitat for the olive - sided flycatcher is probably more limited today than it would have been at this point in the fire cycle without human presence. Also fewer snags occur in stands that.have been harvested than in stands that have only been managed by fire. Management to develop and protect late- successional forest will no doubt benefit the species, as would management to increase the number of snags in deficient stands. Sharp (1992) refers to a paper by Marshall (1988) in which declines in olive -sided flycatchers were noted in unmanaged forest of the Sequoia National Forest. It is possible that winter habitat conditions in Central and South America may be a primary cause for some or all of the decline in these flycatchers. Pacific Fisher (ctilartes pennanti pacifica) -Documented as occurring in the Dungeness drainage of the Quilcene District. In the Pacific Northwest, studies have shown that fishers prefer late - successional conifer forests, and riparian areas within those forests, over other available habitats (Ruggiero et at 1994). Forest structure likely plays a significant role in fisher habitat selection, though the characteristics selected for are largely unknown. Likely considerations are high canopy closure, the presence habitat for prey species (snags, down logs, and understory vegetation), and low fragmentation (Ruggiero et at 1994). As discussed for spotted owls, late- successional forest in the analysis area was historically available cyclically, developing near the end of each period between fires. When it was available, it was prevalent across the landscape, providing unfragmented habitat to a wide variety of species. Currently in the Salmon and Snow Creek watersheds, there is very little late- successional forest.- Fires wiped through most of the area in the last 130 years, and timber harvest has since become big business. Much of the existing forest in the analysis area is structurally simple. Therefore, the likelihood of fishers occupying these watersheds is quite low. Habitat management to provide for northern spotted owls and marbled murrelets would benefit fishers, if they were present. Pacific Lamprey (Lampetra tridentata) - This fish is known to occur in the analysis area. See the fisheries section for additional information. Pacific Western Big -eared Bat (Plecotus townsendii townsendit) - This species is known to occur on the Quilcene Ranger District, in the watersheds immediately north and south of the analysis area (Hedwall 1993). Although no bid eared bats were detected during either year of bat surveys. their presence in adjacent areas makes it quite likely that this species occurs in the Snow and Salmon Creek watersheds. Based on information compiled for the Habitat Conservation Assessment for Townsend's Big -Eared Bat (ISCE 1995), roosting habitat of this species includes caves, mines, and human -made structures such as old buildings, bridges, and culverts. In areas where such roosting sites are limited, these bats may use cavities in large trees for roosts. Prior to white settlement, only caves and large trees were available for roosting. 40 Cave habitat is limited, if it exists at all, in the analysis area. There were many large diameter trees available, primarily in riparian corridors where they escaped the wildfires. Currently, all types of human -made structures used for roosting occur in the Snow /Salmon watershed. The number of large trees are fewer, but the human -made structures are typically selected over trees as roosts. Therefore, suitable habitat for these big -eared bats has increased since white settlement. Of course, these bats prefer to be relatively undisturbed by humans. So, although a great deal of roosting habitat has been created in the last century, much of it may be undesirable given the increases in human activity near buildings, bridges, and culverts. - Townsend's big-eared bats eat almost nothing but Lepidotera (moths). Foraging habitats, which include a variety of forest types, vegetated stream corridors, and wetlands, have been heavily impacted in recent decades. Timber harvest and road development have reduced vegetation adjacent to streams and wetlands, impacting prey availability. When pesticides were used on young stands, moth populations suffered substantial declines, which resulted in big -eared bat declines. The greatest threats to this species are loss of roost sites, either directly to closure/removal or through human intrusion, and reduction in prey base through pesticides and vegetation conversion. If roost sites are found on the District, they should be protected from excessive human intrusion and destruction, especially during the spring -fall when bats are most likely to be present. Conservation of wetlands, as required by the Olympic National Forest Plan (USDA 1990), will protect at least a portion of the species' foraging habitat. Tailed Frog (Ascaphus truer - This amphibian is known to occur throughout the Quilcene District, including in the Snow Creek watershed. These frogs require small, fast - flowing permanent streams with clear, cold water. They are frequently associated with forests in late- successional stages. Eggs are attached to the underside of moderate to large rocks in a stream. Tadpoles attach themselves to similar rocks in the fast flows of the stream. It can take five years or more for a tailed frog tadpole to develop and reach sexual maturity (Corkran and Thorns 1996, Blaustein et al 1990. Tailed frogs are an excellent indicator of stream condition because increases in temperature or sedimentation can make a stream unsuitable. Timber harvest near a suitable stream without sufficient buffers to protect water quality and temperature may substantially impact local populations. Implementation of the Aquatic Conservation Strategy in the NWFP. which promotes maintenance of natural temperature and sediment regimes, will help protect tailed frog populations on National Forest lands. As with the Cascades frog, appropriate surveys to determine the abundance and distribution of the species are still needed throughout most of the analysis area. Survey and Manage Species "Survev and manage" are provisions within the Standards and Guidelines of the NWFP geared toward conserving a variety of plant, fungus, and animal species associated with late - successional forests. Each species on the list is covered by one or more of four provisions: manage known sites, survey prior to ground- disturbing activities and manage known sites, conduct extensive surveys, and conduct general regional survevs. Nine mollusc species on the survey and manage list are known or have the potential to occur on the Olympic National Forest. An additional 335 plant and fungus species on the list are known or may occur on the Forest. A list of these plant and fungus species is available in the Species of Concern Guide for the Olympic National Forest (Ziegltrum, 1996). For additional information on these species or management provisions, see pages C -4 to C -6 and C -49 to C -61 in the NWFP. Molluscs Of the nine mollusc species that may be found on the Olympic Peninsula, three are land snails: hoko vertigo (Vertigo n.sp.). Oregon megomphix (Megomphix henrphilli). and Pu_et oregonian (Ci pronras[ix 41 devia). The remaining six are slugs: blue -gray tail- dropper (Prophysaon coeruleum). Burrington jumping - slug (Hemphillia burringtoni), evening fieldslug (Deroceras hesperium), panther jumping -slug ( Hemphillia pantherina), papillose tail- dropper (Prophysaon dubium), and warty jumping -slug (Hemphillia glandulosa). Little is known about the population status, range, or habitat requirements of these species. The hoko vertigo and Burrington jumping -slug are thought to be endemic to the Olympic Peninsula. The Puget oregonian and evening field slug have been documented on the Olympic Peninsula. All nine species are closely associated with old, undisturbed forest and /or riparian habitats. Therefore, suitable habitat exists for -these species in both Snow and Salmon Creek watersheds, though it is limited. No known sites occur in either watershed. Guidelines in the NWFP require that all known sites be managed for conservation of the species and suitable habitat be surveyed prior to ground - disturbing activities. Appendix 12 of the NWFP identifies mitigation measures to ensure viability of each species. For these nine species, protection buffers around known sites, surveys, and application of riparian reserves are recommended to ensure management activities do not impact species viability. These measures should be followed in both watersheds if sites are located, since some activities could impact these molluscs if they are using the available habitat. Another issue for consideration is the ability of refugia to maintain populations that will be able to colonize surrounding areas as they develop late- successional forest characteristics. Existing pockets of late - successional forest in the analysis area are spaced so far apart that molluscs, which do not migrate substantial distances, may not be able to reach areas in between as they develop the necessary late - successional characteristics. Management that encourages development of late - successional forest characteristics adjacent to currently suitable habitat first will increase the ability of these species to recolonize areas naturally as they become suitable. Management Indicator Species Roosevelt Elk General information: Roosevelt elk are species valued for their cultural and recreational uses, such as hunting and wildlife viewing. In addition, elk may substantially impact the forest they live in through their browsing of young stands and understory vegetation in mature stands (Moorhead 1994). Given that ecosystems on the Olympic Peninsula have developed with the presence of elk, changes in their foraging patterns and/or population levels may substantially affect other species that rely on the forests that are impacted by elk, foraging. Elk rely primarily on three habitat components: forage, cover, and water. On most of the Olympic Peninsula, water is not a limiting factor. The ratio of forage to cover and the distribution of each across the landscape are important. Of particular importance is the availability of forage and cover habitats within the elk's winter range (below 1500? elevation). A final factor that influences elk use of habitat is the proximity of that habitat to human disturbance. Roads, developments, logging operations, and industry all may reduce the use of otherwise desirable habitat. Elk forage in open areas, whether natural or created by 'timber harvest, urbanization, or agriculture, and in the understory of mature forests. Three of the main factors influencing the development of forage are canopy removal, ground disturbance and growth of forage species (shrubs in winter and early spring, forbs and grasses the rest of the year). Timber harvest, either clearcutting or thinning, typically result in both canopy removal and ground disturbance. Seeding of forage species may be accomplished naturally or through humans. In mature, unmanaged stands, canopy removal may result from windthrow. disease, or 42 natural mortality of trees. Frequently some forage species already occur in the understory and are released by overstory removal. Otherwise, ;round disturbance and seeding of forage species occur naturally after disturbances, although humans may move things along in lane areas. Vegetative cover offers protection from weather conditions, predation, and human disturbance. For elk, there are three types of cover habitat: hiding cover, thermal cover, and optimal cover. Hiding cover consists of vegetation thick enough to hide 90% of an elk from 200' away. Young, dense stands and brush thickets can both meeting hiding cover needs. Thermal cover provides protection from extremes in temperature and precipitation. Trees must be at least 40' in height and have more than 70% canopy closure. Optimal cover offers hiding and thermal protection, plus areas of forage. This essential habitat type is provided by multi - layered conifer forests with small, scattered openings. Optimal cover is particularly important during periods of deep snow when travel and forage in open areas are limited. The exact ratio of forage and cover habitats needed to support an elk herd varies. Traditional wisdom indicates that at least 40% of an elk range should provide cover, while up to 60% may provide forage (Thomas et al 1979). In areas with severe winter weather, thermal and optimal cover will be needed in greater abundance than in areas with mild winters. If optimal cover is available, particularly in the winter range of a herd, it fulfills both needs. Even more important than the ratio of forage to cover is the distribution of these habitat requirements on the landscape (Thomas et al 1979; World Forestry Center 1992). A single, enormous block of forage habitat, even if it is equivalent to 60% of their range, will not benefit elk. They tend to forage within 200- 600' of forest edges, close to cover. Therefore, foraging areas must be small and interspersed with cover habitat. Similarly, cover habitats need to be in moderate to large blocks to adequately protect elk from harassment and climate extremes. Areas of hiding cover should be at least 600' in width. Patches of thermal cover should be at least 1200' wide, and 30 -60 acres in total size. Elk regularly use riparian areas for water, forage, cover, and as travel corridors, especially during winter, calving season, and dry summer months. Natural openings, such as meadows and boas, typically provide excellent forage and gathering spots for elk during the rut. Disturbance from forest road use, developments, and industry influences Roosevelt elk use patterns of adjacent forage and cover habitat, possibly causing some areas of suitable habitat to be less utilized. The fact that elk on the eastside of the Olympic Peninsula seem able to adapt to high human disturbance does not mean these high levels of disturbance are not having a negative impact on the animals. Hansen (1993) noted that although Roosevelt elk on the Olympic National Forest were willing to use habitat along even primary roads if it was of high quality, they preferred to use habitat near secondary and closed roads. Good habitat away from roads altogether, such as is available in the Park, is even more desirable. The substantial increase in urbanization and human disturbance in elk winter ranee over the last few decades has reduced the amount of habitat available to elk herds. It is thought that this loss of already limited winter habitat is a primary factor in the low population levels on the eastside of the Peninsula (Taber and Raedeke 1930). Reference and Current conditions: Prior to European settlement, reports indicate large herds of Roosevelt elk across the Olympic Peninsula. Settlement resulted in a substantial increase in elk hunting over that of the Native americans. Elk populations dropped significantly during the late I300's. There are anecdotal reports from the 1930's -50's about small herds of elk in the Discovery Bay/Crocker Lake area (Henry pers comm). These animals were hunted heavily and became almost nonexistent for several decades. In recent years, reports of Roosevelt elk in the log% lands of Snow and Salmon Creek have become more frequent. Small groups of 2 -20 animals have been reported from just north of Discovery Bay 43 south to Lake Leland, and east to Anderson Lake and Kala Point (Henry pers comm). Each year, the bulls from the Sequim /Dungeness herd roam into the analysis area. It is likely that they join up for short periods of time with at least some of the animals that reside in the area. The exact number of elk using Snow and Salmon Creek watersheds is unknown because reports indicated many of the animals roam throughout the area. They do not appear to have banded into set herds, although there are reports of several animals remaining together near Little Skidder hill through much of the year (Schreier pers Comm). For this reason, tracking movements, detailing habitat use, and understanding population dynamics are nearly impossible. The WDFW has indicated an interest in radio - tagging several animals in the area to try to gain a better understanding of the populations and their movements, but there have been no real efforts to do this to date. Therefore, the only information available on these animals is from reported observations by the public. Based on these observations, it appears that elk are using the recent clearcuts on State and private lands throughout both watersheds for foraging. Road densities in Salmon Creek are 5.1 miles per square mile, and in Snow Creek they are 3.4 miles per square mile. A majority of this road network is logging roads on private lands, many of which are gated to reduce vehicular traffic. However, many of these roads get a fair amount of off -road vehicle use, so disturbance is not eliminated by the gates. Almost all of the area being used by the elk (non - federal lands) is below 1500', which is seen as the upper elevation for winter use.. Therefore, most of the area they are using can be used year- round. Within the entire analysis area, 7,729 acres are under the age of 20 - prime foraging habitat (Table 6, Page 25). As seen on Map 10, a substantial portion of this acreage is on state and private lands -- the area being used by the elk. The older of these stands may also provide hiding cover. In addition, the stands in CES that are open enough to allow movement of lame mammals qualify as hiding cover for elk. Most stands in the URS provide elk with thermal cover. Optimal cover would be provided by the limited acres of forest in the late - successional stages (DUS, BDS, NDS, and FFS). It is impossible to know how many acres of CES forest are , inaccessible to elk, or how many acres in the analysis area provide what type of cover habitat. Map 10 shows that a majority of the area being used by the elk is large blocks of forest less than 20 years old. Around the edges of these blocks are areas that should provide hiding and thermal cover for the elk. As stated earlier, the best habitat for elk is many small patches of forage surrounded by medium to large areas of cover. The state and private land being used by elk in the analysis area is quite different: large blocks of foraging habitat surrounded by small to medium patches of cover. Almost none of the area available to them will provide optimal cover. A severe winter could have a substantial impact on the elk. If elk populations in the analysis area increase, and housing developments continue to pop up, a conflict may develop. Despite increased disturbance, elk may decide to remain in traditional areas. This cold result in conflicts between land owners and the elk. If elk are a desired species for these lowlands, and human _ expansion is planned, thought may need to be given to managing certain areas for the elk to provide enough high quality habitat that they will not roam into housing areas where they are not wanted. Forest Service Opportunities Elk use on the National Forest in the analysis area is currently very limited. Individuals may roam into the eastern edges from the lowlands, and the Sequim bulls have been known to travel across the forest to reach the lowlands, but anything more than transitory use has never been documented. Based on this limited use and limited availability of grass and forb habitats on the National Forest, there are few opportunities for increasing elk use. In the future, the suitability of State and private lands for elk may decrease if they are developed, if additional roads are put in, and /or if the remaining thermal cover is removed. This may force elk populations in the Snow and Salmon Creek drainages to look to Forest Service lands for habitat. if elk use of the National Forest becomes more consistent, management consideration should be given to - providing for their short and long -term needs. 44 Neotropical Migratory Birds Genera! information Neotropical migratory birds are those species of birds that winter in the tropics and breed in the temperate zones of North America. Recent evidence suggests that populations of some neotropical migratory bird species have been declining. The migratory nature of these species makes it difficult to identify the cause of declines. Limiting factors may be associated with the wintering ground, breeding areas, migration stop- over points, or any combination of the three. This complicates habitat management and conservation because management efforts directed at one or two of these areas may not prove successful if the most limiting habitat is not addressed. Neotropical migrants in western Washington tend to winter in the southern United States, Mexico and Central and South America. They use the Pacific Flyway to migrate to local breeding areas. On their wintering grounds, deforestation and the resulting competition with resident forest birds may impact populations. Use of pesticides can cause direct loss of birds and may reduce prey levels to the point where they will limit bird populations. Loss of habitat also has a substantial impact on species along migration routes, forcing high concentrations of birds into smaller and smaller areas and increasing competition with resident species. Fragmentation of forest breeding habitat not only reduces the number of acres of habitat available to birds, it also reduces the quality of the habitat that remains. Many neotropical migrants are interior forest species and fragmentation makes much of the remaining forest into edge habitat, which may result in increased nest predation, high rates of brood parasitism (e.g:, by brown - headed cowbird), increased rates of interspecifie competition, reduced pairing success, and reduced nesting success. Hardwood trees and shrubs in riparian zones probably are the most important habitat type for neotropical migratory birds on the Olympic Peninsula. Of the species that may breed on the Forest ( -68), more than 40 have a strong association with riparian habitat for foraging, nesting, or both. Upland hardwood communities also are important to many of the same species. The third habitat type that is important to many neotrops on the Olympic Peninsula is late- successional forest, those areas in the DUS, BDS, NDS, FFS and OGS. Approximately 25 of our species use these forests. Reference and Current coizditions Historic numbers and species diversity of neotropical migratory birds are not available for the Snow and Salmon Creek watersheds. Brian Sharpe (1992) analyzed Breeding Bird Surveys of Neotropical I'Aigrants in Washington and Oregon and determined that 38 species are declining or already have declined to low levels, 31 of these species occur on the Olympic Peninsula and may occur in the analysis area. The reasons for these declines are variable, depending on the species. For many birds, the reasons behind populations declines are unknown. It is very likely that there is more deciduous forest now than there washistorically, both in riparian areas and uplands. Given the high percentage of neotropical migratory birds that use these habitats, this increase is beneficial to these species. Now that timber harvest has decreased on National Forest lands, and hardwoods are managed against on state and private timberlands, the amount of deciduous forest in Snow and Salmon Creek watersheds should begin to decline. This will reduce available foraging and nesting habitat for many species. For other neotrop species, the future is a bit brighter. As described under spotted owls and marbled murrelets. the amount of DUS. BDS, NDS, and FFS forest available in the analysis area now is less than would be available at this time without timber harvest. Therefore, the species that rely on these forest types for breeding habitat may have been limited in this area over the past several decades. With changes in 4 management on National Forest lands, it is likely that the amount of habitat in these stages will increase over the next several decades. This evolution will increase the habitat available to many neotrop species. Whether these habitat changes will result in altered populations of some species remains to be seen. Given the potential for populations to be limited by breeding, wintering, or migration habitat, it is possible for one type of habitat to be substantially altered with little impact on the species because the species is already more limited by another life requirement. Similarly, if breeding habitat is the limiting factor for a species, these future changes could seriously affect population levels. Forest Service Opportunities Since the potential impact of changing breeding habitat on neotropical migratory birds in the analysis area is unknown, it should be assumed for management purposes that these changes will have the greatest possible impact. Therefore, patches of riparian and upland hardwood habitats should be retained across the landscape if conservation of neotropical migratory birds is a management objective. Similarly, efforts to provide additional areas in the five late- successional forest stages will benefit at least 25 neotrop species. Cavity- dependent Species Genera! information This is a broad group of species, comprised primarily of birds and mammals. These animals live in a variety of habitats, but all use tree cavities for reproduction. There are two subgroups within the cavity - dependent species: primary cavity excavators and secondary cavity users. Primary excavators, which' include woodpeckers and nuthatches, excavate holes in the bole of a live tree or snag. Secondary cavity users, such as bluebirds, flying squirrels, and spotted owls, use cavities created by primary excavators and those that occur naturally as the result of deformities, decay, etc. In addition to the benefits of having a diverse ecosystem, many of these species, including all of the primary excavators, provide another benefit: they are insectivorous. They feed on the insects that reside in trees and snags. A healthy population of insectivorous birds can help prevent disastrous insect infestations. Also, some species in this group are considered management indicator species for their habitat (northern spotted owls, pileated woodpeckers) and others (northern flying squirrels, voles, etc.) are essential to the continued development of fungal communities in the forest ecosystem. Primary excavators create cavities in nearly every species of tree available. Pileated woodpeckers are capable of drilling into even thick- barked Douglas -firs, while nuthatches and downy woodpeckers focus on the thinner skins of deciduous trees and some pines. Secondary cavity users typically base their cavity selection on its size, shape, and location on the tree, as well as the habitat it is in. Reference and Current Conditions Primary excavators may occur in nearly any habitat type, as Ion; as there are trees and /or snags of an appropriate size available. Secondary cavity users can be found in any habitat type in which cavities of suitable size occur. Historically, the major factor influencing the availability of trees. snags, and cavities in the analysis area was fire. The wildfires that burned across much of both watersheds regularly were very intense. In many areas they left few remnants and snags, primarily in river bottoms and on cool, north facing slopes. In other spots, scattered trees and snags were spared, leaving habitat to be used by those cavity dependent species associated with young stands. These remnants eventually provided habitat to interior forest - dwelling cavity nesters, once the forest grew up around them. Eventually as the forest developed. trees grew larder and snags were created, providing habitat for primary excavators. Populations of cavity- dependent species in the analysis area must have declined following fires, and increased as habitat conditions improved. In more recent times, timber harvest has become the primary factor influencing habitat availability for cavity- dependent species. Clearcutting traditionally has removed all trees and snags from a stand. leaving 46 nothing for these species. Although population numbers and trends are not available for most species, the vast acreages that have been harvested in this way have no doubt had a negative impact. The lack of late - successional forest implies a limited population of secondary cavity users, relative to other watersheds. Revision in Forest Service management practices to move away from clearcutting toward thinning, and to allow retention of many snags and deformed trees in a stand should have a positive impact on species populations. Forest Service Opportunities In other watersheds, trees have been topped to promote decay and eventual development of snags. Some of these trees have also had cavities cut into them to offer habitat for secondary cavity nesters in areas where such habitat is limited. In the Dungeness watershed, a majority of these cavities were used within I- 3 years of their placement. This success indicates a willingness of many species to use human - provided cavities. Many areas in the Snow and Salmon Creek watersheds are deficient in numbers of snags and are therefore probably also lacking in cavities. Creation of both snags and cavities in some of these areas could help support and perhaps even increase cavity- dependent species populations until the forest can support them naturally. HABITAT GUILDS It is not possible to analyze the condition and potential for beneficial management for all wildlife species in the watershed analysis area. Instead, species of special interest have been evaluated. To attempt to address the other several hundred species that may occur in the analysis area, it is easiest to look at habitat conditions and infer from that the potential impacts to species requiring certain habitat types. For this purpose, seven habitat guilds have been identified. These guilds are very broad. Therefore, within each guild, many species may have very specific requirements that are not addressed in the evaluation. Alternatively, there are species, such as Columbian black- tailed deer, that use several of the guilds, despite their broadness. Ecosystem initiation stage forest habitat General information Ecosystem initiation stage forests offer open spaces, light, heat, and a fair amount of seeds and berries for food, while containing enough vegetation to provide protection to a diversity of small species. The vegetation in these stands include gasses, forbs, shrubs, and both coniferous and deciduous trees. As mentioned in the vegetation section, post- harvest stands typically contain a high proportion of deciduous trees, especially red alder. This diversity of vegetation and concentration of deciduous trees are two factors that attract many of the wildlife species in this guild. In the Snow and Salmon Creek watersheds, wildlife species using this habitat type include those for whom it is the primary habitat, such as MacGillivray's warbler and other songbirds, to the Roosevelt elk and American kestrel that may forage in young stands, but need other habitats to meet other life requirements. Several species of neotropical migratory birds, which were identified previously as a group of concern, rely heavily on EIS forests. Both Roosevelt elk and goshawks may use young stands for foraging. but they do not depend on these forests. Reference and Current conditions As discussed in the vegetation section, the Snow and Salmon Creek watersheds historically burned every 200 ,years. resulting in huge areas of voung forest. This fire history resulted in a broad. successional landscape pattern in which a majority of the landscape was in ecosystem initiation stage forest for the first 20 years of every 200 year cycle. Throughout the rest of the 200 years, small patches of young forest would develop where wind, disease, or mass soil movement resulted in the loss of the existing stand. Species that rely on this habitat type would be expected to do very well during the periods immediately 47 following fires, but populations must have declined dramatically as the stands aged. Only those species with generalist tendencies would have continued to do well after the first 20 -30 years. Pockets of EIS associate species no doubt continued to thrive in the small patches of young forest created by nature. Once settlers arrived, fires were no longer the sole source of ecosystem initiation stage forest. Timber harvest began in earnest, resulting in a much more fragmented landscape than was historically present (Page 20). Timber harvest produced extensive areas of EIS forest, increasing the amount of habitat available for species in this guild. For some species, these EIS stands are not as desirable or suitable as similar stands that resulted from wildfires because they lack snags, down wood, and occasional remnant trees. The condition of scattered patches of young forest across the landscape has continued to this day. Because of differences in management objectives, State and private lands in the analysis area currently provide more of this habitat type than the National Forest. This will probably continue to be true in the foreseeable future. Opportunities The wildlife species that rely on EIS forests should have an abundance of suitable habitat available to them for decades to come, though less and less of it will be on National Forest lands. The Forest Service should . consider the distribution of these areas when they plan future management, with efforts to provide habitat away from the large tracks that exist off - forest. Species that rely on EIS forest do not necessarily require large clearcuts. They may do equally as well in small patches within thinned stands. Additionally, many " species associated with young forests need snags and/or down logs for breeding, resting, or foraging. Management efforts to provide these structural components in future timber harvests or to increase their availability in and around past harvest areas would benefit many species. Competitive exclusion stage forest habitat Genera! information Those stands that are still evolving through the competitive exclusion stage provide primarily small diameter trees that are tightly spaced, a closed canopy, little understory vegetation and only small diameter ( <10 ") down wood and snags. Very few, if any, wildlife species rely predominantly on this habitat. Small birds and mammals can move about freely in these stands, reducing their chances of predation, but food is limited. When walking through such stands, almost all apparent wildlife is near the edge. Deer, grouse, and other moderate -sized animals may use some of the more open of these forests for hiding cover. Reference and Current conditions As with the EIS forests, CES forest habitat was historically available cyclically in response to wildfires. In Snow and Salmon Creek watersheds, progression of a stand through the competitive exclusion stage can take 30 -100+ years (page 23), depending on the stand. Species that could use this habitat type probably did quite well in the analysis area: As detailed in the vegetation section, some of this area has been managed since the 1920's, which speeds along the development process and may provide ecological components important to many late successional forest associated species earlier than would happen naturally. However, much of the forest on National Forest land is still in the competitive exclusion stage. These areas are the least productive for wildlife species, supporting a few generalist species. Off the National Forest, most stands are being managed for future timber production. Pre - commercial and commercial thins are regularly used to move these forests through the CES as quickly as possible. This practice is likely to continue in the future. 48 Opportunities Based on existing knowledge, the viability of wildlife species using, CES forests is not a concern. It is possible that there are species using these forests about which we are unaware for whom viability may be an issue, such as the survey and manacle molluscs. Surveys of species using these forests should be conducted prior to any management that would substantially reduce the amount of this habitat type on National Forest lands. Understory reinitiation stage forest habitat Genera! information Stands that are in the understory reinitiation phase offer more habitat components for wildlife then those in the competitive exclusion phase. Trees are typically larger in diameter, more widely spaced, with shrubs, (orbs, and young trees in the understory where they provide forage, hiding, cover, and nesting habitat for many species. Snags and down wood will still be primarily small in diameter, and will be limited in number. These stands frequently will contain a diversity of wildlife species. Many of these species are habitat generalists, such as mice, songbirds, deer, and small raptors, that use a variety of habitats depending on needs and availability. Reference and Current conditions Since these forests tend to develop after the CES, historically, they may have been found in the analysis area starting 50 or more years after a wildfire. Some may not have entered this stage until 120 years after the fire. Without human management, development of an understory took another 20 -30 years. Forest management has frequently sped up the development process in the analysis area. Thinning of stands in the CES helped move many stands into the URS more quickly. Since the 1920's, a substantial portion of the forest land has been commercially thinned, particularly in the upper Snow Creek subwatershed. These thins opened the canopy, allowing an understory to begin. In this way, much of the analysis area has been moved into the understory reinitiation stage, which increases the suitability of the forest for many wildlife species. Off the National Forest, URS forests will continue to provide habitat for those species that use open canopy forest with a developing understory until they are harvested. On National Forest land, it is more likely that stands will gradually develop structural and botanical diversity that will move them into the DUS. BDS, and NDS. Opportunities Given the large amount of URS forest in the Snow and Salmon Creek watersheds, the amount of CES forest that is evolving toward URS, and the continued harvesting of forests, wildlife species that use this habitat type should continue to thrive for many decades without any change in management practices. If it is determined that CES forests realty don't provide habitat for many non - generalist species, efforts to move CES forests into the URS could benefit many species. Late - successional forest habitat (DUS, BDS, NDS, FFS, and OGS) Genera! information In the Late - successional Reserve Assessment for RW 106.407 species or groups of species associated with late- successional forests were identified as possibly occurring on the Quilcene Ranger District. Included in this are 64 species of birds, mammals, amphibians, and molluscs, plus one group of arthropods. Another 10 are species of fish and the rest are fungi, bryophytes, and vascular plants. Except for the fisher, which was discussed earlier, any of the 64 wildlife species may occur in the Snow and /or Salmon Creek watersheds. Species of concern that are part of this guild include the northern spotted owl, marbled murrelet, bald eagle, northern goshawk, and several bat species. lull The ecological stages that are included in the larger term "late- successional forest" are the developed understory stage, botanically diverse stage, niche diversification stage, fully functional stage, and old growth stave. Each of these stages provide an ecological niche that is not available in other habitat types. DUS forests have a full understory of vegetation that provides food to a wide variety of species as well as hiding cover and nesting opportunities. BIDS has multiple canopy layers and a diversity of plant species that provide additional habitat components. NDS forests contain snags, down wood, and canopy gaps that provide unique microhabitats within the large forest system. Fully functional forest brings all of these habitat characteristics together in a forest with large diameter trees and a fairly high canopy closure. Species associated with these forests typically require one or more of these habitat characteristics for foraging, resting, and/or breeding. Depending on the history of a site, some relatively young stands may have components of BDS or NDS forest prior to the development of an understory. This presence of certain habitat characteristics may make a stand suitable for some species that are more typically associated with one of the late - successional forest stages. For example, northern goshawks may breed successfully in open 120 year old URS stands if they have remnant lane trees and sufficient down wood and snags to provide for prey species. Other species require a combination of different characteristics provided by one of the five late- successional forest stages " and may not be able to do well in any other type of habitat, even if it has some of the components. Reference and Current conditions As discussed in the vegetation section (page 23) and for the northern spotted owl, the amount of forest in these late - successional stages in the analysis area has always been limited by wildfire. Small patches occasionally survived the fires, providing refugia for dependent species, but it has never been a prevalent habitat type on the landscape in these watersheds. Since settlers arrived, much of DUS, BDS, NDS, FFS, and OGS forest that existed has been either harvested or burned by human - caused wildfires. Currently, there are less than 1 500 acres of forest habitat in these stages in the analysis area and they are distributed in small, isolated patches (Map 10). Those areas identified as Late - Successional Reserve on the National Forest will be managed in the future to develop into DUS, BDS, NDS, FFS, and OGS forest, so the amount of this habitat in those areas should increase over time. Within Adaptive Management Area on the District, some lands may be managed to develop into DUS, BDS, NDS, FFS, and OGS forest, while much of it will be managed to match natural conditions. Most of the limited amount of this habitat off - Forest is not likely to survive long into the future, given the rapid rate of forest conversion on State and private lands. It is unlikely that the amount of DUS, BDS, NDS, FFS, and OGS forest in the analysis area will substantially change over the next several decades, though distribution of this habitat will change. Management of the LSR should increase the patch size of forest in these stages, which would benefit dependent and associated species. Aside from this benefit, it is unlikely that populations of species in this guild will vary from current conditions, unless some of the existing small patches contain rare molluscs that may not occur in those patches that will remain over time. If this is the case, these rare species could be at risk if they are not found and properly managed. Opportunities As was just mentioned, a primary need in the limited areas of DUS, BDS. NDS. FFS, and OGS forest on National Forest land is surveys for survey and manage species, including molluscs, and several of the species of concern. If some of the plant or mollusc species are located, it would make even the small patches of habitat important and would make provision of a network of forest in late - successional stages essential. Management in the LSR should focus on increasing the size of habitat patches, especially in areas where any of the analysis species discussed earlier are known to occur. Where it meets other management objectives, similar efforts should be made to connect existing areas of DUS, BDS, NDS, FFS, and OGS forest in the AMA. Priority should be given to helping DUS. BDS, and NDS forests to develop the vegetative or structural characteristics they lack that will move them toward the fully functional stage. 50 This might include opening canopy gaps to increase botanical diversity and encourage individual tree growth, or creating snags, down logs, or cavities to provide structural niches. Riparian and Wetland habitat Genera! information This guild encompasses species that use a wide variety of habitat types. It is a broad categorization that covers aquatic species associated with rivers, streams, or some form of wetland, and terrestrial species associated with the influence zone of rivers, streams, and /or wetlands. Species may have very specific requirements, such as the tailed frog that requires fast - flowing, cold, clear streams, or they may be Generalists, such as the great blue heron that requires only a few large deciduous trees for nesting and an ample food supply, and is not picky about rivers versus wetlands. Riparian and wetland habitats are very diverse and therefore provide many habitat niches within a relatively small area. As stated above, they consist of both the aquatic and terrestrial zones. Within the aquatic zone, species may select for water quality, quantity, temperature, or depth, or for structures and vegetation present, such as logs, rocks, and reeds. In the terrestrial area, habitat niches include those provided by snags, down wood, coniferous or deciduous forest, or shrubs and other vegetation. Although many of these components are available away from rivers and wetlands, riparian areas provide cool, moist microclimates that may not exist elsewhere. They are also close to a water body, which is essential for many species in this Guild for some aspect of the life. Reference and Current conditions The reference and current conditions of riparian areas and wetlands in the Snow and Salmon Creek watersheds are discussed in the Aquatic Functions section of this analysis (Pages 79 - 84). Surveys for a few of the species in this Guild have been conducted recently in the analysis area. Amphibian surveys were done along stretches of Trapper Creek and three unnamed tributaries to Snow Creek in the summer of 1994. Red - legged frogs were found along Trapper Creek and tailed frogs were located in all three tributaries to Snow Creek. Surveys were conducted for bats at nvo sites in the analysis area in 1993 and 1994. Results of these surveys are described in the Survey and Manage species portion of this module. As discussed in the Aquatic Functions section, while it is uncertain whether the number of wetlands in the analysis area has changed over time, it is relatively certain that the quality of those wetlands currently present is lower than in historic times. Several factors (page 80) have impacted riparian and wetland water quality, water quantity, vegetation, and function during this century. Although there is no information available on riparian- dependent species population levels in the analysis area, it is likely that many populations have declined with the loss of habitat quality. For some species of amphibians, even a slight chance in water temperature or quantity in a wetland can male the wetland unusable for egg- laying. Loss of trees around a forested wetland or stream will reduce the suitability for bats and many songbirds. Meanwhile, waterfowl have lost so much high quality habitat throughout the Pacific Coast flyway that even heavily altered agricultural wetlands may be important to them for migration and breeding. And those species that rely on deciduous riparian vegetation now Find more habitat available than probably existed in the past. Opportunities As people become more aware of the importance of riparian and wetland habitats to the larger ecosystem , Greater care is being taken to protect these areas during management practices. On National Forest lands, Riparian Reserves will ensure that management in riparian and wetland areas is designed to meet aquatic habitat conservation objectives. Canopy closure, vegetative species composition, and retention of snags and down logs will be given special consideration. As these Riparian Reserves are implemented and Previously unknown wetlands are identified and incorporated in to the reserve system, the quality of habitat 51 available to many riparian dependent species should increase. Some of these affects will also be felt downstream, off the National Forest. The rest of the responsibility for managing riparian condition on State and private lands falls to the individual owners. Major landholders have begun to provide some stream protection during logging. How much that practice will impact habitat quality is uncertain. The restoration projects being implemented in the lower watershed will benefit wildlife species if they result in restoration of more natural water temperatures and flows, and native vegetation. Estuarine and Marine habitat Genera! information The estuarine habitat at the mouth of Salmon and Snow Creeks supports a diversity of wildlife, from crabs and dragonflies to geese and red - winged blackbirds. Most species using this habitat either live in the water or feed on species that live in the water. For manv waterfowl species. the emergent vegetation is essential for nesting and /or feeding. For aquatic species, it is often both the vegetation and the brackish water that is important. Discovery Bay also provides habitat to a number of marine species, including murrelets and seals. While many of the users of Discovery Bay do not approach the inlets of Snow and Salmon creeks, they are impacted by management in the watersheds as it affects water quality in the bay. Murrelets, auklets, seals, and others rely on fish populations in the bay, such as herring, for food. Similarly, shorebirds near the head of the bay and waterfowl require healthy populations of fish, insects, and shellfish for survival Reference and Current Conditions The primary concerns for estuarine and marine habitats are increases in pollution and sedimentation. Prior to settlement, pollution in the bay area was probably minimal to non - existent. Sedimentation would have onlv occurred after natural events, such as floods and fires, and would have been cyclical. With the coming of agriculture, houses, roads, and logging, sources of pollution have multiplied, as have potential sources of sedimentation. In recent years, limited monitoring of water quality has been done in Discovery Bay and the streams feeding it (see page 67 in Aquatic for more information). Based on this information, the habitats offered by Discovery Bay seem to be healthy for wildlife. Little information was found regarding wildlife and fish populations in the Bay. Some detail is given in the Aquatic Functions section (Page 9 1 ) that indicates that several species of fish in the Bay, particularly salmon and herring, have declined in recent years. This loss of fish may hint at an undetected habitat problem, though it is more likely due to a combination of habitat, harvest, and population dynamics. The reduced fish populations have a direct impact on wildlife populations because many of the wildlife species that use Discovery Bay feed on the fish in the Bay. Herons, bald eagles, waterfowl, murrelets, and many Others rely on these fisheries for at least part of their diet. It is impossible to say just how significantly fish population declines will impact the wildlife of the area, but management to increase these populations could only benefit most wildlife using the estuarine and marine habitats. Opportunities Forest Service impacts on estuarine and marine habitat are far - removed and may not be important to the quality of habitat provided in Discovery Bay. However. any negative impacts from National Forest lands can exacerbate downstream troubles. Therefore, care should be given to follow the Aquatic Conservation Strategy, includin, maintaining roads and culverts, avoiding inappropriate management activities in unstable areas, and timing projects to reduce potential impacts to stream sediment. 52 Agricultural/urban habitat Getteral in. formation Although all species can rely on natural habitats for survival, some species of wildlife do quite well in close proximity to humans and agriculture. Many choose to use these increasingly available areas rather than compete with other species for more natural habitat away from human influences. For example, deer and raccoons can survive very well in forest environments, but they often inhabit areas near humans to benefit from gardens, garbage cans, and agriculture. Similarly, many species of birds have found humans capable and willing to provide acceptable food and nesting habitat. There is a tradeoff for this ease of access however. These individuals face an increased risk of human disturbance, new and greater numbers of predators, and potential dangers of urbanization and agriculture, such as pesticides and vehicles. Reference and Current conditions Prior to settlement, this type of habitat was almost nonexistent. With settlement came agriculture and communities. The Social Systems section of this analysis describes the increase over time of human use in the analysis area. For wildlife, the result has been increases in populations capable of coexisting with humans and livestock, and similar declines in populations of some species whose habitat has been converted. For those species living in the agriculture and urban setting, potential risks increase with human use. However suitable habitat also expands with much of the human expansion, which enables populations to continue to increase, despite the risks. Given the high likelihood that people will continue to develop the lowlands of both watersheds, it is likely that more habitat will be provided for those species that can successfully live in urban and agricultural settings. REFERENCES Amens, S. 1996. Personal communication. Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife bald eagle specialist. Blaustein. A.R.. J.J. Beatty, D.H. Olson, and R.M. Storm. 1995. The biology of amphibians and reptiles in old - Growth forests in the Pacific Northwest. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, PNW- GTR -337. Buckingham. N.M., E.G. Schreiner, T.N. Kaye, 1.E. Burger, and E.L. Tisch. 1995. Flora of the Olympic Peninsula. Northwest Interpretive Association, Seattle, WA. 199 pp. Corkran. C.C. and C. Thorns. 1996. Amphibians of Oregon. Washington, and British Columbia. Lone Pine Publishing. Canada. 175 pp. Dratch, P.. B.Johnson, L.Leigh, D.Levkoy, D_Milne, R.Read, R.Selkirk, and C.Swanberg. 1975. A case study for species reintroduction: the wolf in Olympic National Park, Washington. The Evergreen state College, Olympia, Washington. Forsman. E. 1994. Personal communication. USDA Forest Service Pacific Northwest Research Station. Northern spotted owl researcher. Hamer, T.E. and S.K. Nelson. 1995. Characteristics of marbled murrelet nest trees and nesting stands. Pp. 69 -52 in USDA Forest Service, General Technical Report PSNX'- GTR -152, Ecology and Conservation of the Marble Murrelet. 420pp. Hedwall, T.R. 1993. Bat activity and species composition on the Quilcene Ranker District, Olympic National Forest. Unpublished senior thesis. University of Washington, Seattle. l7pp. 53 Henderson, J.A., D. H. Peter, R.D. Lesher and D.C. Shaw. 1989. Forested plant associations of the Olympic National Forest. USDA Forest Service R6 -Eeol- 001 -88. Pacific Northwest Region. Portland, Or. 502 PP. ` Henderson J.A. and D.H. Peter. 1983. Preliminary plant associations and habitat types of the Hoodsport and Quilcene Ranger District, Olympic National Forest. USDA Forest Service Pacific Northwest Region, Olympia. WA. 86 pp. Henry, P. 1996. Personal communication. Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife Law Enforcement. Idaho State Conservation Effort. 1995. Habitat conservation assessment and conservation strategy for the Townsend's big -eared bat. Draft unpubl. rep. no. 1. Boise, ID. Leonard, W.P., H.A. Brown, L.L.C. Jones, K.R. McAllister, R.M. Storm. 1993. Amphibians of Washington and Oregon. Seattle Audubon Society, Seattle WA. 168pp Marshall, David B. 1992. Status of the Northern Goshawk in Oregon and Washington. Audubon Society of Portland, Portland, OR. 35pp. Marshall, J.T. 1988. Birds lost from a giant Sequoia forest during fifty years. Condor 90:359 -372. Nelson, S.K. and T.E. Hamer. 1995. Nest success and the effects of predation on marbled murrelets. Pp. 89 -97 in USDA Forest Service, General Technical Report PSW- GTR -152. Ecology and Conservation of the Marble Murrelet. 420pp. Pacific Coast American Peregrine Falcon Recovery Team. 1982. Pacific Coast Recovery Plan for the American Peregrine Falcon. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 87pp. Pagel, J.E. and W.M. Jarman. 1991. Peregrine Falcons, Pesticides, and Contaminants in the Pacific Northwest. Journal of Pesticide Reform 11(4): 7 -12. Peter, D.H. 1993. DRAFT Subregional Ecological Assessment for Olympic National Forest. USDA Forest Service, Olympia, WA. Peter, D.H. 1996. Personal Communication. Forest Service Area Ecology Program. Puget Sound Cooperative River Basin Team (PSCRBT)_ 1992. The Discovery Bay Watershed.. ;180 +pp, Ralph, C.J., S. K. Nelson, M.M. Shaughnessy, S.L. Miller, and T.E. Hamer. 1994. Methods for surveying marbled murrelets in forests: a protocol for land management and research. Ralph, C.J. G. L. Hunt, M.G. Raphael, J.F. Platt. 1995. Ecology and Conservation of the Marbled Murrelet in North America: an Overview. Pp. 3 -22 in USDA Forest Service, General Technical Report PSW -GTR 152, Ecology and Conservation of the Marble Murrelet_ 420pp. Ruggiero, L.F., Aubrv, K.B., Buskirk, S.W., Lyon, L.J., Zielinski, W.J., tech. eds. 1994. The Scientific Basis for Conserving Forest Carnivores: American Marten, Fisher, Lynx, and Wolverine in the Western United States. Gen. Tech. Rep. Riot -254. Ft. Collins. CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture. Forest Service. Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 184pp. Schreier, S. Personal communication. Local resident and hunter. 54 Sharp. B.E. 1992. Neotropical migrants on National Forests in the Pacific Northwest-. A compilation of existing information. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 100+ pp. Speich, S.M. and T.R. Wahl. 1995. Marbled murrelet populations of Washington -- Marine habitat preferences and variability of occurrence. Pp. 313 -326 in USDA Forest Service. General Technical Report PS W -GTR -1 52, Ecology and Conservation of the Marble Murrelet. 420pp. Taber, R.D. and K.J. Raedeke. 1980. Roosevelt elk of the Olympic National Forest. Final Report to USDA Forest Service, Olympic National Forest. Contract No. R6 -79 -237. 107pp. Thomas, J.W., Black, H. Jr., Scherzinger, R.J., Pederson, R.J. 1979. Deer and elk. Pp 104 -127 in Thomas, J.W., ed. Wildlife habitat in managed forests: the Blue Mountains of Oregon and Washington. Agric. Handbook 553. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. Washington, DC. USDA. 1990a. Land and Resource Management Plan, Olympic National Forest. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region, Olympia, WA. 100 +pp. USDA. 1990b. Final Environmental Impact Statement, Land and Resource Management Plan, Olympic National Forest. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region, Olympia, WA. USDA. 1994a. Big Quilcene watershed analysis an ecological report at the watershed level. USDA Forest Service, Olympia, WA. USDA and USDI. 1994. Record of Decision for Amendments to Forest Service and Bureau of Land anagement Planning Documents Within the Range of the Northern Spotted Owl. Standards and Guidelines for Management of Habitat for Late - Successional and Old- Growth Forest Related Species within the Range of the Northern Spotted Owl. 100- pages. USDA and USDIa. 1994. Final Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement on ,Management of Habitat for Late- Successional and Old- Growth Forest Related Species within the Range of the Northern Spotted Owl. Appendix J2: Results of Additional Species Analysis. 476pp. USDI. 1992. 57 Federal Register 191:45328-45337. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1986. Recovery Plan for the Pacific Bald Eagle. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Portland, OR. 160pp. White. M.1. 1994. Proposal for relative abundance study of Vvotis bats on the Quilcene Ranger District, Olympic National Forest. Unpublished senior thesis. University of Washington, Seattle. Lapp. World Forestry Center. 1992. Woodland Fish and Wildlife: Managine Small Woodlands for Elk. Portland, OR. 8pp. Ziegitrum, J. 1996. Olympic National Forest Species of Concern Guide. USDA Forest Service. Aquatic Functions Climate Reference On a broad scale, the climate patterns we see today have probably occurred since the end of the last ice age, about 10,000 years ago. Westerly flow from the Pacific picked up moisture from near the Hawaiian Islands and deposited extremely high precipitation as it rose over the mountainous terrain of the Olympics. The rainshadow effect of the mountains resulted in relatively less annual precipitation within Snow and Salmon watersheds. Limited historic evidence indicates large fluctuations in climate on the Olympic Peninsula. Conditions during the Pliocene and Miocene periods (13 to 25 million years ago) were quite different from recent climate conditions. Climate during the Miocene was warm, wet and temperate. The Hypsithermal Period from 4,000 to 10,000 years ago was considered the driest and warmest in the last 50,000 years. The Neoglacial period that began about 4,000 years ago was slightly cooler, but much wetter and more maritime. Two or three glaciations occurred from about 1,000 to 4,000 years ago. The period of the Medieval Optimum from about 1000 to 1300 A.D. was warm and dry (Henderson et al., 1989). Variations of general climate pattern have also occurred in recent centuries. Past climate was relatively cooler and drier compared to present conditions. The fourteenth century through about 1850 is the period called the "Little Ice Age," which marked approximately 600 years of cold winters in northern latitudes. The coldest periods were probably between 1400 -1510 and 1645- 1715. Higher proportion of the precipitation likely fell as snow because of the colder conditions. Towards the end of the Little Ice Age, from about 1750 to 1830, the climate in the Pacific Northwest was probably cool and wet. Glacial records and tree rings that indicate poor tree growth show this trend (Henderson et al., 1989). Within the overall wetter conditions since the Little Ice Age, drier periods occurred in the mid 1930's and 1940's, followed by a wetter period up to 1973 (Haushild et al., 197S). Average annual precipitation during the late 1970's to the present time has been somewhat drier than pre -1973_ Precipitation data - collected at Port Angeles since 1878 indicate that the late 1800's was wetter than previous conditions, and drier periods occurred in the 1920's and 1940's (Brubaker, not dated). Rainfall data collected in Olympia, Washington indicate very low summer levels. June, July, and August precipitation levels, often measured less than 2 inches in the 1910 and 1920 decades. In comparison, for the period 1953 through 1983 showed only two years with less than 2 inches of rainfall (Henderson, et al., 1989). Climate Current Precipitation The present climate of the Olympic Peninsula is relatively wet and warmer in comparison to the past 50,000 years. On a global scale, current climate conditions are characterized as cool, temperate, and maritime. However, because of their position in the rainshadow of the mountains, the climate of Snow and Salmon watersheds is relatively dry and almost continental. Annual and monthly variations in rainfall occur within the watersheds. Rainfall measured at the Washington State Department of Fish and Wildlife (WDFW) Snow Creek Research Station located at river mile (R.M.) 0.8 on Snow Creek indicates these variations. Total annual rainfall for the period 1977 to 1995 ranged from a low of about 19 inches in 1985 to a high of about 41.6 inches in 1983, and averaged roughly 26 inches (Figure 2). Mean monthly rainfall ranged from about I inch in July to around 3.5 inches in November (Figure 3). About eighty -five percent of the precipitation occurs October through May. Average annual precipitation for the entire Snow Creek watershed is 41 inches (Jones and Stokes Associates, 1991). 56 Figure 2. Total annual rainfall at Snow Creek Research Station for years listed. 1 E:? 1 ttq a 1 Ri It l �' 7 N' -'+ E pia [� �S 1 _ Zj T. S'• 5s k Hr 64 .7j 1 cJ If.. to L ►`� 1:2 � f � T Y S 1 c•. t_ is ...1 r 1pUrC .7. HVCI aaC III WI lll1y 1 4 l..la.1 a I'v- v.11 1. .I.. ., .+•. .. .v .-.+ - - -. %%'DFI%' Snow Creek Research Station Rainfall Averages for Calender Years 1977 through 197$ 05 EMI Monch :Mean annual depth of snowfall is 5.4 inches. Average January snow depth is 2.1 inches. Snowfall depth reflects the sum of individual snowfall events, not the actual accumulation of the snowpack on the ground (Jones and Stokes Associates, 1991). Snow cover in the lowlands usually disappears quickly because of the maritime influence. These watersheds can be stratified into four different precipitation zones based on elevation according to the Washington State Department of Natural Resources (WDNR): lowland (less than S00 feet elevation), rain- dominate (800 to 1600 feet elevation), rain -on -snow (1600 to 2900 feet elevation) and snow- dominate ) I (2900 to 4400 feet elevation) (WDNR. 1996). Snow Creek is 43% lowland, 34% rain - dominate. 22% rain - on -snow, and 1% snow - dominate. Salmon Creek is 39% lowland, 54% rain- dominated, and 7% rain -on- snow (Table 16, Nlap 13). Air Temperature Air temperatures within Snow and Salmon watersheds show a moderate cycle. Jones and Stokes Associates determined air temperature for Snow Creek watershed by taking the average for Sequim 2 and Quilcene weather. The average maximum annual temperature is 59 degrees Fahrenheit and the average annual minimum is 39 degrees. The lowest average monthly temperature of 31 degrees Fahrenheit occurred in both December and January. The highest average monthly temperature of 75 degrees occurred in August (Table 13, Figure 4) (Jones and Stokes Associates, 1991). Table 13. Average maximum and minimum mnnthly air tPMnPr9ty# Pc r— Q..n... 1- -t- .....#... L..A Temperature °F Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Ann Maximum 45 49 53 58 64 69 73 75 69 60 50 45 59 Minimum 31 32 34 37 42 47 50 50 45 39 34 31 39 ure 4. Average maximum and minimum monthly air temperatures for Snow Creek watershed. SnowCreck Watershed A%trape Maxi mum and Minimum Monthly Air Temperature 80 Maximum Temperature 70 E)MinimumTemperature e 60 — -- J so 40 .I 30 20 10 0 Month Water Quantity Reference 4 Hydrologic Setting On a broad scale, hydrologic conditions have probably been about the same throughout the Holocene, the period from about 10,000 years ago, to the present time. However, variations in ground water and surface water occurred throughout this period, given the changes in climate, vegetative cover. and development of soils. Ground Water and Surface Water The climate during the Holocene varied slightly about the generally wet, moderate conditions. Slightly drier or wetter periods resulted in somewhat higher or lower amounts of water being available for ground - water recharge. The landscape presumably changed markedly with the retreat of the most recent glaciers. 58 Tile earliest post - glacial surfaces of lodgment till, recessional outwash, and alluvial fans would not have supported plant growth. Soils slowly formed from these surficial deposits. As the climate became wetter_ and cooler, Douglas fir and cedar replaced these species (Henderson, et al., 1989). The evolving vegetative cover changed the proportion of the incident precipitation available to recharge groundwater or surface runoff. Generally, the plants used more of the precipitation for evapotranspiration, which translated to a loss from the amount available for recharge or runoff. The forest cover limited surface -water runoff amounts. The large crowns intercepted precipitation falling on the forest and allowed much to evaporate. The trees also transpired much of the water that either fell to the forest floor directly or dripped from tite canopy. However, the forest cover also retained some of the storm water that had previously run off by capturing it in the forest canopy or in forest litter. This capture typically represented a gain for the amount available for recharge. Natural disturbances, predominantly fire, modified forest cover and simultaneously affected evapotranspiration, surface runoff, and consequently recharge. Stand replacing fires occurred in 1308, 1 508 and 1701 (Henderson et al., 1989). In more recent history, fires in 1924 and 1925 burned large forest stands in the Snow Creek watershed. Timber was salvaged following these fires. Timber harvest that replaced old growth or late -seral forests with young forests has occurred within the watersheds since European settlement. Water Quantity Current Hydrologic Setting Snow Creek The headwaters of Snow Creek originate on the northeast and east slopes of Mount Zion above 3600 feet elevation and empty into the head of Discovery Bay. These upper slopes are formed by basalt and sedimentary rocks covered by a thin layer of soil usually only a few feet thick. Small headwater streams cascade down narrow, high gradient channels lined typically with small basalt boulders. Tributaries draining the steep slopes eventually flow through a V- shaped valley within an ancient U- shaped valley. Snow Creek exits the tightly confined, east - facing valley and turns north upon entering the wide, alluviated valley (Jones and Stokes Associates, 1991). The major tributaries to Snow Creek are Andrews Creek, inclusive of Crocker Lake, and Trapper Creek (Map 2). Prior to European settlement in the lower watersheds, Snow Creek emptied into Salmon Creek at the head of Discovery Bay, near its estuary. Since European settlement, the lowermost 0.6 mile of stream was channelized to flow on the eastern side of the valley. During high rainfall periods, Snow Creek overflow's into the old channel and reestablishes some direct contact with Salmon Creek. Snow Creek also joins Salmon Creek in the intertidal area during low tides (Nelson et al., 1993). Diversion of Andrews Creek flows also occurred following European settlement. Andrews Creek, once a tributary to Lake Leland within the Little Quilcene River drainage, was diverted by valley residents and currently flows into Crocker Lake within the Snow Creek drainage. Crocker Lake had no natural outlet prior to diversion of Andrews Creek (Jamestown S'Klallam Tribe, 1994). Downstream of the lake, Andrews Creek enters Snow Creek at R.M. 3.6. Recently sections of Andrews Creek were rechannelized along Highwav 101 through cooperative efforts with landowners, Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife (WDFW), and Washington Department of Transportation (WDOT). Channelization occurred to prevent inundation of Highway 101 during high flow periods (Gately, 1995). 59 Salmon Creek Resistant basalt bedrock underlies most of the watershed. Small headwater streams flow through Salmon Creek headwaters originate on the northern slopes of Mount Zion above 3400 feet elevation. Erosion confined, high gradient channels. In the middle portion of the watershed (bench above gorge section), glacial deposits influence processes more than bedrock composition. In the lower section, below the gorge the stream occupies an alluviated valley, (i.e., has a floodplain).. Ground Water Natural recharge of ground water within Snow and Salmon watersheds occurs primarily from infiltration of rainfall. Minimal snowpacks provide limited recharge to aquifers. Because of water loss by evapotranspiration, only a portion of the precipitation contributes to the groundwater system. A local study by Washington Department of Ecology (WDOE) indicates only 0.6 inches of the 18 inches annual precipitation at Port Townsend is available for ground water recharge, surface runoff, and storage (Grimstad et al., 1981). The most effective ground water recharge areas in the watersheds are within permeable surface geologic formations such as advance and recessional outwash deposits. Recent alluvial deposits allow moderate recharge. Impermeable consolidated rocks, found on the slopes and foothills of the Olympics, prevent vertical water movement (except along joints and fractures), and cause precipitation to runoff. In areas where glacial till overlays an impermeable layer, downward movement of water is likely impeded and results in lateral movement or ponding of surface water. Glacial till deposits usually provide recharge areas (Nelson et al., 1992). Intermittent streams are heavily dependent( ground -water supply and go dry as ground -water levels drop below the stream beds. Survival of salmonids and other species depends strongly on flow of ground water into the streams. Natural mixing of fresh and marine waters in shoreline areas with tidal influence may result in high chloride levels within the groundwater. Well construction and pumping in proximity to the diffusion zone may increase penetration of the sea water. Low - productivity aquifers in shoreline areas characterized by near- surface bedrock may be particularly prone to salt water intrusion from excessive pumping (Jamestown S'Klallam Tribe, 1994). Surface -Water Snow Creek Nelson et al. 1992, estimated eighty percent of the 208 stream miles to be intermittent within Discovery__ Bay watershed (inclusive of Snow and Salmon creeks). This estimate was based on water type classifications and Field observations. Snow, Andrews, Salmon, and Contractor Creeks were the only known streams within Discovery Bay watershed to have perennial flows at their mouths (Nelson et al., 1992). Snow Creek contains eighty -five miles of stream (Map 2). Stream flow for Snow Creek was characterized from measurements taken at two gating stations on Snow Creek. Washington State Department of Fish and Wildlife (WDFW) has continuously monitored stream discharge at R.M. 0.8 since 1977. As well, the United States Geological Survey (USGS) gaged daily stream flows at R.M. 3.9 from 1952 to 1973, and peak flows from 1952 to 1979. Based on WDFW data, , Snow Creek has an average annual now of approximately 22 cubic feet per second (cfs), and an average low now of 4 cfs. Extremes for the period of record measured a high of 1.309 cfs on January. 29, 1983 ,. and a low of 0.6 cfs on September 17, 1981 (WDFW, 1996). Irrigation and domestic diversions likely exist upstream from the gaging station. 60 The historic stream flow, measured at USGS gaging station 12050500, (Snow Creek near Maynard. Washington) indicates similar annual and seasonal variations to more recent measurements taken at the WDFW station. This station was located at R.M. 3.9. Mean annual flow was about 16 cfs and lowest mean flow was around 2.2 cfs. Annual peak flows from 1953 through 1979 varied from a low 61 cfs in December 1977 to a high 733 cfs in January 1959 (Table 14, Figure 5). Annual low flows from 1954 through 1972 ranged from 1.1 cfs in 1960, to 3.4 cfs in 1955. Based on peak flow data, a one -year flow would measure 42 cfs and a one - hundred year flow would measure 984 cfs (Williams et al., 1955, Table 15). Small water diversions for irrigation were noted upstream of the station in 1952 (USDI, 1955). Diversions result in lower flow levels. Table 14. Snow and Salmon Watersheds Gaging Station Information. Gaging Station Name River Drainage Period of Record Station # mile Area (Water Years) (sq.mi.) 12050500 Snow Creek Near 3.9 11.2 1952 to 1972 (annual (USGS) Maynard, Washington flow) :1972 to 1979 (peak flow) 12051000 Andrews Creek Near .04 10.2 1952 (low flow) (USGS) Maynard, Washington 12050000 Salmon Creek Near 1.0 13.0 1952 (low flow) Maynard, Washington WDFW Snow Creek 0.3 1977 to present Research Station (annual flow) WDFW Salmon Creek 1.0 13.0 1977 to 1932 Station I (annual flow) c:... c !`.. t� t ct- rinwe Parh vrar nn Snnw Creek USGS Gaging Station # 12050500 Snow Creek near Maynard, Washington Annual Peak Flow for Water Years 1953 through 1979 800 700 -- tt 600 - -- - - -- -- - -- - -- -- I 0 500 - - -- - - -- -- - -- -- - - -- - - - a400 - - -- - - - -- -- - - - - - -- - - -- -- — -- -- E' a 300 f - -- -- - - - - -- - -- — - - -- - - - ' Z 200 - _I N a - 100 0 Cn Ln (n cif LO n o+ e^� LO In LO LO Water year 61 Tahlr IS Qrrtlrrrnrr Intervnk fnr Fstimated Disc hareeat USGS Gage 12050500. Exceedance Probability Recurrence Interval Estimated discharge (cfs) 0.99 1.01 42.2 0.95 1.05 67.1 0.9 1.11 85.8 0.8 1.25 115.7 0.5 2 204.6 0? 5 361.5 0.1 10 486.6 0.04 25 667.8 0.02 50 891.1 0.01 100 984.2 In addition to continuous flow data, WDOE personnel took several flow measurements on Snow and Andrews creeks in 1936 and 1991. Jefferson County Conservation District (1CCD) installed staff gages on Andrews Creek in January, 1994 (Jamestown S'Klallam Tribe, 1994). Streamflow results from both these sources are not included in this report. Andrews Creek low flows were ,aged at USGS gaging station 12051000 "Andrews Creek near Maynard, Washington" (250 feet upstream from the mouth) from June through September 1952. Mean monthly discharge ranged from 2.22 cfs in June, to 0 cfs in September. Minimum monthly discharge ranged from 1.2 cfs in June, to 0 cfs in August and September (Table 14) (USDI, 1955). Individual steam flow measurements taken at the ;age location May through September 1961 ranged from 4.34 cfs in May to 0.06 cfs in September (Williams et al., 1989). Low flows on Trapper Creek at the Snow Creek Road crossing in August and September 1952 and in August 1961 measured 0.32, 0.27: and 0.28 cfs, respectively (USDI, 1964, & Williams et al.. 1989). Salmon Creek _ Salmon Creek contains sixty -one miles of stream (Map 2). Salmon Creek stream flow characteristics can. be estimated from gaging information collected at two stations on Salmon Creek. WDFW measured stream flows on Salmon Creek from 1977 to 1932. Limited stream gage data collected at two stations on :. Salmon Creek indicate a wide variation in annual and seasonal flows. Based on the five years-of record, w the average annual flow was 8.4 cfs. Extremes include the highest flow of 1,043 cfs recorded in February 1973 the lowest flow of 0.3 cfs recorded on September 1981 (Nelson et al., 1992). Low flow data was collected at USGS gaging station 12050000 "Salmon Creek near Mavnard. Washington" (located one mile upstream from the mouth) from June through October 1952. glean monthly discharge ranged from 4.51 cfs in June, to 1.36 cfs in September. ivlinimum monthly discharge ranged from 2.9 cfs in June, to 0.8 cfs in September (USDI, 1955). Individual stream flow measurements taken at the station from Flay through September 1961 varied from 14_S cfs in Nlay, to 1. 44 cfs in September (Williams eta[., 1939). JCCD installed a staff gage on Salmon Creek in January, 1994 (Jamestown S'Klallam Tribe. 1994), but results are not given in this report. 62 Potential Sensitivity to Changes in Peak Flow Forest practices can alter the magnitude and timing of streamflows by augmenting storm runoff volume due to increased soil moisture or snowmelt, and increased efficiency of water conveyance by the drainage network due to surface disruption such as road construction. Stream channel characteristics and dimensions form to accommodate the bankfull discharge event (2 -year) in lower gradient self - formed rivers (Wolman et al., 1960) and apparently the 5 -year event in steep mountain streams (Lisle, 1981). Because 2 year and 5 year flows are considered to be channel forming (or channel changing) flows, fish habitat is considered significantly affected when these flows occur with increased frequency. Those channels with deformable bed and/or banks are the most susceptible.. Over -bank floods are an issue in regard to downstream public resources for 25 -, 50 -, and 100- year events (Washington Forest Practices Board. 1994). Precipitation regime, vegetative cover (as related to hydrologic maturity), road density and drainage densitv were assessed to determine potential sensitivity to change in peak flow as the result of timber harvest and roads (Table 16). The Snow and Salmon watersheds were stratified into precipitation zones to determine what areas of the watershed may be susceptible to rain -on -snow events. These events occur as the result of high rates of snowmelt during rainy periods when air temperature and wind speeds are high. During these events, snowmelt can dramatically increase rates of water delivery to the soil (Coffin et al., 1992) and/or increase rates of runoff above that resulting from rain alone. Channels may be altered by bank erosion, downcutting and redistribution of sediment and large woody debris. Rain -on -snow events may also trigger slope failure in steep, marginally stable slopes due to a reduction in shear strength (resistance to downslope movement) caused by increased soil pore water pressure (Swanson, 197.3). Rain -on -snow events have the highest probability of occurring in the mid - elevation rain -on -snow zone followed by the next greatest probability of occurring within the adjacent snow dominated and rain dominated zones. These events are least likely to occur in the highland and lowland zones (Washington Forest Practices Board. 1994). For the watersheds as a whole, 7 percent of Snow Creek is within the rain -on -snow zone and similarly, about 9 percent of Salmon Creek (Table 16). Based on distribution of the rain -on -snow, rain - dominant, and snow- dominant zones, areas most likely to be most sensitive are upper Snow Creek (not including Andrews and Trapper creeks), upper Salmon Creek, and the higher elevations of Skidder Hill (iVlap 13). Hydrologic maturity is related to the ability of the vegetative cover to store snow. The greater the canopy crown closure of the forest, the less snow is stored on the hillslope and therefore available for runoff during subsequent precipitation runoff events. Hydrologically mature represents forested stands with greater than 70 percent canopy crown closure, intermediate hydrologic maturity represents stands with 10 -70 percent canopy crown closure, and hydrologically immature represents stands with less than 10 percent canopy crown closure. Ion- forested vegetative covers (agricultural, urban, open water and other) are considered to be hvdrologically immature because of their ability to store deep snowpacks and generate rapid melt during periods of rain -on -snow conditions. _ Hydrologically immature areas are concentrated in the lower portions of the watershed, mostly on State and private ownerships_ This concentration is due to the conversion of forest lands to agricultural use and timber harvest that has occurred within the last decade. Much of Snow Creek watershed was salvage logged following the 1924 and 192-5 fires. Some of these same areas have been harvested again in recent decades. In comparison with other areas in Snow Creek, Andrews Creek has the greatest proportion of young- forested stands (Nelson et al., 1992) Overall road density within the watersheds is high. measuring 4.0 miles per square mile in Snow Creek and 5.1 miles per square mile in Salmon Creek. These values are conservative estimates, because of 63 incomplete road information for private holdings. For instance, 1990 aerial photographs show road densities on the facing slopes of Big Skidder Hill. CederhoIm (1931) concluded that road density greater than 2.5 miles per square mile negatively impacted salmonid habitat. These values were determined for the Clearwater River drainage on the west side of the Olympic Peninsula. It is assumed that the road drainage system extends the stream network by increasing the amount of water delivered to the streams, and transporting it more rapidly than natural processes (Jones et aL, 1996). Areas with both high road densities and high drainage densities are expected to be the most sensitive to peak flow increases from roads. Such areas include the south facing slopes of Big Skidder Hill. The Puget Sound River Basin Team estimated peak flows for a ten year storm under 1992 conditions to be about twenty -five percent above those that would have occurred with mature forest cover and no roads. - Extent of impacts from forest activities on the watersheds is unknown. They also reasoned that even though impacts occurred as the result of current and past forest activities, most of the observable problems (such as erosion and sediment deposition) were related to site specific circumstances. Non -point forest related problems did not appear to be widespread throughout Discovery Bay watershed (Nelson et al., 1992). Table 16. Hvdroloaic Maturity, Drainage Densitv, Road Density, and Precipitation Zones for Snow and Salmon Watersheds JVote: Hydroloe is maturity data will be added to the table when it becomes available. Maturity Immature Inter—oiare Mature Hydrologic Maturity Drainage Density Road Dena Acns Total % acres/ Sown Drainag* Drainago Sawn Road Maturity Acns Maturity Miles Miles Density Miles Miles 7,972 12.5 50 12 40 r25 42 7 1.486 850 5.092 Immature 19A Snow Creek 542 r99 Andrews Creek Immature 19C Trapper Creek 166 '3 Salmon Creek Maturity Immature Inter—oiare Mature Hydrologic Maturity Drainage Density Road Dena Acns Total % acres/ Sown Drainag* Drainago Sawn Road Maturity Acns Maturity Miles Miles Density Miles Miles 7,972 12.5 50 12 40 r25 42 7 1.486 850 5.092 Immature 1,096 tnterme0ate 542 nature 2.605 Immature 175 Intem. eciate 166 Mature 1.296 Immature 1.214 Intermediate - 1,962 Mature 7,040 19% 1f% 5496 4.472 23% rs% 55% 1,642 11% 16% 79% 10.629 19% 56% Low- Rain Rain on Snow land Dominato Snow Dominate 3 s 3002 2543 2215 (386) (32 %) (28%) 75 250 35 75 390 52 1191 1445 137 (67 %) (30 %) (3 %) Z5 8.9 3.4 2.5 36 37 343 793 0 (52 %1 (49 %) 166 610 37 166 84 7 5 1 0176 5729 726 0 (39 %) (54 %1 (T %J 7.Cdr95 Water Quality Reference Prior to European settlement, it is presumed water quality was good throughout the watersheds. Fire disturbance intermittently affected the water quality by increasing sediment levels and water temperatures, and lowering Dissolved Oxygen and pH levels. Even though fires were widespread, some forested riparian areas were likely spared. The riparian canopy that remained provided shade to the streams, and thus helped maintain cooler stream temperatures. Bacterial levels were likely low. European settlement brought concentrated settlements to the area and increased the risk of surface -and ground -water degradation. Studies within the analysis areas indicate road construction, timber harvest, and livestock management have caused increased sediment loads and higher water temperatures. In addition, livestock management and urban development have elevated fecal coliform levels. 64 Erosional Processes -- Sediment Production In this section erosional processes include the erosion (source), transport and deposition of sediment or earth materials. This discussion will be limited to source areas and processes that affect or deliver to stream channels. Erosion includes both surface erosion and mass wasting. In general, sediment production can be viewed as resulting from one of the following processes: 1) Surface erosion. 2) shallow -rapid mass wasting, 3) deep seated mass wasting, 4) and stream bank and channel erosion. Surface Erosion In the Snow and Salmon Creek watersheds, the background surface erosion rates, prior to management activities, were probably low. The low rates reflect the naturally forested state, the permeable soils, and the generally flat to gently sloping terrain. This situation was intermittently altered by natural wildfires that periodically burned through the area. An increase in sediment production probably occurred, and persisted through the vegetative recovery period. Mass Wasting - Shallow Rapid The potential for shallow -rapid mass wasting was evaluated using an adaptation of a slope morphology model developed by the Forest Practices Division of the State of Washington, Department of Natural Resources, (Shaw and Johnson 1990. This model uses digital elevation model (DEivl) data in the GI system to evaluate hillslope gradient and form (concave, planar, or convex). Susceptibility to mass wasting is rated as low, medium, or high. With combinations of steep, concave slopes having the highest likelihood of failure while gentle and convex slopes are predicted to exhibit the lowest failure occurrences. Model accuracy is limited to the quality of the DEM data and the size of the pixel analyzed (900 m2)by GIS and is intended for use only as a flagging tool. For an example, much of the steep and over- steepened areas in. the inner gorges are not delineated by the slope morphology model. Because these (shallow rapid) failure types are superficial in nature, they are the types most likely to be affected by loss of vegetative cover. Root strength often plays a key role in the stability of slopes that are subject to these failure types. The loss of vegetative cover as a result of fire, timber harvest or any other mechanism is expected to result in an increase in failures of this type. The model indicates failure potential regardless of condition. Overlaying disturbance or management intensity will identify those areas with an increased potential for instability. Debris avalanche, slides, flows, and torrents are all included under the term shallow -rapid failure. The zones of High susceptibility to mass wasting were mapped on the Geology map in this report (Map 3). The primary areas delineated as highly susceptible to mass wasting occurred on the upper slopes of Mt. Zion and in the headwaters of Salmon Creek. Smaller "High" areas occurred in the headwaters of various tributaries of Salmon and Snow Creeks. In total, these "High" areas encompass about 297 acres or 1% of the total land area of the watersheds. The model also identified about 23 acres in "High" zones within the Inner Gorges. This is a preliminary indication that hillslope mass wasting is not a major natural hazard in these watersheds. Air photo interpretation supported the results of the Slope iVlorphology model. Evidence of past shallow rapid mass wasting was noted in the headwaters of streams flowing off the east face of Mt. Zion corresponding to "High" zones. The basalt - underlain slopes of Salmon Creek watershed did not show a sensitivity to mass wasting after fires. Active mass wasting was found through out the Inner Gorge areas in the Snow Creek drainage. The slope morphology model indicates those areas of the watershed .vith mass wasting potential based strictly on physical attributes of slope and shape. However, there are several areas of the analysis that were not identified by the model, but still exhibit active mass wasting. These areas are located within certain combinations of geologic material and landform (geomorphology). 65 The underlying geologic materials play a significant role in the location of potentially unstable sites -- this is particularly significant/helpful in those areas not delineated by the DEM model. Inner gorge landforms are areas where both the potential and observed (air photo and stream survey data) mass wasting and surface erosion hazard exists. Where the Inner Gorges cut through basalts in the Salmon Creek drainage, the banks are relatively stable. Where the Inner Gorges cut through glacial outwash, glacial lacustrine deposits, or the mudstone and siltstone bedrock of the Ttr unit (Salmon, Andrews, Trapper, and Snow), the slopes are active and have a higher occurrence of mass wasting and surface erosion.. In the natural state, nearly all the soils in these watersheds are rated as stable. This is primarily due to slope gradient. The slope morphology model indicated that about 98% of the land rated as low susceptibility to mass wasting. The soils overlays and databases rated a majority of the soils as very stable to stable in the natural state, with stability declining as slopes increased. Soils developing in glaciolacustrine and glaciofluvial deposits were rated as naturally moderately stable to unstable. These soils are primarily located within or bordering Inner Gorges, though one area of glaciolacustrine deposits lies in a generally flat area of the Salmon Creek headwaters (Jones and Stokes 1991, USDA 1969. McCreary 1975). Mass Wasting- Deep Seated Several features believed to be resulting from deep seated slope movements were mapped. These features are not expected to be particularly sensitive to factors that affect root strength because failure surfaces are normally below the zone of root penetration. However, such features commonly contain areas of smaller scale slope instability that may include shallow rapid failure types. These areas often have weaker materials than surrounding areas, and also are often areas that concentrate water -- both contributing to instability. Common associations are toe slopes and/or areas of stream undercutting. Channel Erosion Channel erosion includes sediment produced from stream cutting of banks and channel or valley edges, as well as remobilizing of material deposited in the channel bed and floodplain. Those areas subject to these processes are channel segments that contain deformable (erodable) bed or banks. A more in -depth description is provided in the discussion of stream channel and associated geomorphic units. In general response reaches (see below) primarily serve to deposit and store sediment but can and do produce sediment from channel bed and banks as well as floodplain and terrace edges. Inner gorge geomorphic types (especially within the Ttr, mudstone-siltstone, bedrock), and channel segments where the stream has incised into surficial (in this case primarily glacial) deposits are other areas most likely to produce sediment from channel erosion as defined above. Water Quality Current Washinaton State has designated all surface waters Ivin, within National Forest Svstem lands. Discovery Bay watershed, and the Strait of Juan De Fuca as Class AA, or extraordinary_ The State has set criteria for quality of its water resources through the Clean Water Act, Chapter 173 -201 WAD. Criteria is set for fecal coliform, dissolved oxygen, temperature, and pH, among others. The waters in Snow and Salmon watersheds are relatively clean. However, some studies inclusive of Snow and Salmon watersheds and Discovery Bay, indicate water quality has been impacted. Jefferson County monitored five bays, including Discovery Bay, from January 1933 to February 1939, in order to establish baseline fecal coliform data. Fecal coliform levels exceeded the State standard in Snow, Salmon and Andrews creeks. Most of the watersheds tested showed an increase in bacterial loading during the dry months. The high bacterial counts corresponded to livestock presence in fields during the summer. Marine stations at the head of the bay generally had elevated bacteria( levels compared to stations at the mouth of 66 the bay. Occasionally, levels were extremely elevated near fresh water sources in Discovery Bay (Rubida, 1989). The Washington State Department of Health (WDOH) conducted bacteriological study in tite southern portion of Discovery Bay in 1988. Elevated fecal coliform levels were measured at one marine and several fresh water sample stations at the extreme south end of the bay. Due to the insufficient number of samples taken, results were not considered statistically valid (WDOH, 1988). WDOH also conducted ambient monitoring of marine waters in Discovery Bay from 1988 to 1992. Preliminary data indicated that samples taken at sixteen stations throughout the bay met State standards (WDOH, 1992). Discovery Bay was proposed for listing on the Washington State Department of Ecology the 1996 Section 303(d) List (WDOE, 1996). Water bodies listed are those where State water quality standards have been exceeded. The bay was proposed for listing due to three excursions for pH standards, and four excursions for temperature standards in 1991. The State decided not to list the bay for either pH or temperatures exceeding limits. This decision was based on the rationale that pH excursions were not repeated and there was no significant direct human - caused influence. The State reasoned that temperatures above the limits were due to solar heating of the surface water, and not caused by human influence (WDOE. 1995). Jefferson County Conservation District conducted a study in 1994 to assess the water quality of Discovery Bay. The streams sampled as part of the study were Snow Creek, Salmon Creek. Contractors Creek, and Zerr Drain. Samples were taken monthly and rain events were targeted. Temperature, conductivity, pH, and dissolved oxygen (DO) were measured on site. Fecal coliform, turbidity, and total suspended solids (TSS) samples were analyzed in laboratories. Stream discharge measurements were taken at stream gage sites. Four sites were established on Snow Creek and three sites for both Andrews Creek and Salmon Creek (Gately, 1995). Results are summarized in the proceeding sections of this document. Washington State Department of Ecology conducted a bioassessment study of several streams throughout the state, including Snow Creek, beginning in 1991. Parameters being examined include aquatic organisms, temperatures, pH, conductivity, dissolved oxygen, oxygen saturation, turbidity, alkalinity, hardness, total organic carbon, ammonia, nitrate - nitrite, total phosphorus, ortho - phosphate, and total persulfate nitrogen. The Snow Creek study site is located at R.M. 4. Preliminary review of initial year data conducted in 1992 did not reveal water quality problems at this site (Plotnikoff, 1992). Large clear cuts in the 1980's and absence of riparian zone buffers have caused stream - degradation problems in the middle of the Snow Creek watershed on the south side of Big Skidder Hill. Near the Discovery Bay outlet, and the Crocker Lake area degradation from animal access, lack of channel shading, and vegetation growth are problems (Jamestown S'Klallam Tribe, 1994) Sedimentation Snow Creek In the 1994 study by Jefferson County, Snow Creek accounted for over 99% of the suspended solids entering Discovery Bay, of the streams sampled. `early all the TSS loading measured during the study occurred on two of the eleven days sampled. Jefferson County estimated annual sediment loading for 1994 to be 0.50 acre feet per square mile, about twice the estimated background level (0.22 acre feet per square mile) (Nelson et al., 1992). These estimates were based on stand age, road density, soils. slope, and precipitation within the Snow Creek watershed (Gately,'t995). In 1994, fourteen substrate samples taken from typical chum spawning areas in the lower half -mile of Snow Creek averaged 17.1% fines (Rowse et al., in press). According to the Jefferson County study, the highest average TSS levels during the wet months occurred at the sampling station located downstream of the steep - walled area (below Snow Creek Road). The Puget Sound River Basin Team observed slides, areas of bank erosion, and much sediment (sand and gravel) in 67 the stream channel. The team attributed the instability of the slopes to the steepness of the sideslopes and the unconsolidated soils. Because of these conditions, they predicted sediment delivery from this section of stream for several years (Gately. 1990. The Andrews Creek sampling station located above Crocker Lake near Highway 101 crossing had high TSS levels for the dry months. The suspended materials at this station as well as the station downstream from Crocker Lake appeared to be from primarily decaying vegetation rather than mineral particles. Stream reaches above both stations become choked with canary grass during the summer, and likely produce the brownish floc that is present as it decays (Gately, 1990. Andrews Creek headwaters are in the upper forested area above Snow Creek Road. Most of the stream corridor has been clearcut, with a buffer left on only the lower portion above the road, Between Snow Creek Road and Boulton Road, the stream flows through a steep walled, forested ravine. The ravine appears to be very unstable. The Puget Sound River Basin Team surveyed this stream section and found many slopes and eroding banks. The streambed was filled with sediment (sand and gravel), and will likely continue to transport the sediment downstream for many years. Clearing has occurred up to the edge of the ravine in several areas; however, no logging within the ravine was observed. The team attributed the unstable slopes to steepness and unconsolidated soils (Nelson et al., 1992). Residents have observed the accumulation of several feet of sediment in lower Snow Creek since the Washington Department of Transportation discontinued dredging the estuary in 1980. In addition to sediment accumulation, residents have also noticed an increase in the frequency of flooding (Gately, 1995). Salmon Creek Salmon Creek contributed less than one percent of the suspended solids to Discovery Bay of the streams monitored in the 1994 Jefferson County study. TSS levels during the high flow months of November and December were substantially less in comparison with levels in Snow Creek. December 1994 measurements showed Salmon Creek levels to be twelve times less than those of Snow Creek (Gately, 1990. The Puget Sound River Basin Team in a 1992 survey found the overall condition of upper Salmon Creek riparian corridors to be fairly good. The survey found lower reaches of Salmon Creek where livestock have access to the stream in poorer condition. Sediment deposition in the lower reaches were impacting chum salmon spawning habitat (Nelson et al., 1992). A spawning gravel survey conducted in 1994 at fourteen sites in the lower 0.7 miles of Salmon Creek estimated the percentage of fine material to be 13.6% (Burnthal & Faulds, in press). Houck Creek, a tributary to Salmon Creek, was monitored in the 1995 Gately study. Rerouting of the channel in the 1960's has resulted in hillslope erosion and sediment delivery to downstream sections of the channel. A waterfall near the mouth of Houck Creek has developed as the result of stream cutting (Nelson et al., 1992). Hillslope erosion appears to have subsided since the channel cut into clay materials. Samples taken near the mouth of Houck Creek indicate phytoplankton contributed to TSS levels (Gately, 1990. Stream Temperature Stream temperatures in Snow and Salmon creeks are influenced by ambient air temperature, condition of riparian vegetation, ground water, valley form, sediment deposition, and the amount of water flowing in the channel. Water (and air) temperatures increase in a downstream direction. Valley form within the watershed influences stream temperatures. Narrow valley channels with riparian vegetation, such as those in the headwaters of Snow and Salmon, provide stream shade. Thus water temperatures remain relatively cool in the upper parts of the watersheds. Wider alluvial channels with little or no riparian vegetation, found in the lowlands of Snow and Salmon, have higher water temperatures. 68 Stream temperatures within the watersheds show diurnal fluctuations and seasonal variation. Stream temperature measurements in the Dungeness river can be extrapolated to the Snow and Salmon Creek watersheds. Stream temperatures show a consistent pattern of diurnal fluctuations. The warmest hours of the day are typically from about 3:00 to 8:00 p.m., while the coolest period is from about 2:00 to 11:00 a.m.. Water temperatures lag behind air temperatures by several hours (Orsborn 1994). With respect to salmonids, stream temperatures are of most concern during the hot periods of summer. The optimal range for most salmonids is 12 -14 degrees Celsius. Lethal levels for adults will vary according to a variety of factors, but generally range 20 -25 degrees Celsius. Sublethal temperatures can reduce fish growth, thereby indirectly increasing mortality (MacDonald et al., 1991). Snow Creek The highest average daily temperature recorded at the WDFW for the period 1977 through 1990 was 17.0 degrees Celsius (Figure 6). Highest water temperatures recorded in the Jefferson County stud; was 17 degrees Celsius in July (Gately, 1990. Average monthly stream temperatures range from 3.5 in January to 1 5.7 degrees Celsius in August (Figure 7, Table 17). A w, A O Figure 6. Average Datty tream Temperature for snow c -reek aL n.1". v.o. WDFW Snow Creek Research Station Average Daily Water Temperatures January 1977 through December 1990 1&0 - - - — - 16.0 ug Sep 140 ul 12 Jun .0 c, Oc C 10.0 y n 80 Nov pr U 1; 6.0 r v 4.0 c eb 2.0 an Month 69 Table 17. Snow Creek -- Summary of Nlonthly Stream Temperatures for Snow Creek. " Tem 0 ct Nov Dec La n Feb tii tar &pr LIa v Jun ul ua e t Maximum 14.7 11.4 jj._Q Lo. 4 l9 j LQ—�-- I . , . veraa 5.4 3.5 j llsl I3.4 I_== I—=-7 ,Minimum �.? �7_ -;.4 _ 1 —i:_0 —2-) -. 1� --0 10.9 I1.9 0 t) 4 A Q r igure ^" cl agt" lvlu11L1a Y JLl �a1111 ■ X11. Elba asau a. . •• • ��•� «• •�•• •• �•�• W D F W Snow Creek Research S to do n Average Monthly Water Tempera tore January 1977 through December 1991 ZZ t 4 0 u u t 2 .0 v 10.0 U 8.0 E m 4 .0 -°i Q M on th Q H o' i E. Andrews Creek stream temperatures measured in the Jefferson County study in 199.3 were infrequent, but do suggest that stream temperatures in forested areas upstream from the gorge area (between Snow Creek Road and Boulton Road) are suitable for salmonids. Conversely, summer stream temperatures in Andrews Creek downstream of Crocker Lake may not be suitable during warm periods for salmonids. Crocker Lake can be warmed considerably during the summer, resulting in differences of several decrees between stream temperatures downstream and upstream of the lake (Gately, 1990. Salmon Creek The temperature data taken in Salmon Creek by Jefferson County 1994 are too limited to draw any strong conclusions, but the highest temperature measured was 18.5 degrees Celsius in July. Houck Creek stream temperatures differed by about 4 degrees Celsius between stations upstream and downstream of the pond (located near the mouth). The maximum temperature of 19.5 degrees Celsius was observed at the downstream station. The warming effect of Houck Creek on Salmon Creek was considered minimal because it contributed about 8% (0.13 efs) of the total low to Salmon Creek (Gately. 1995). Bacteria Water quality specialists use fecal coliform bacteria as an indicator for overall water quality. Elevated bacteria levels have the potential to affect domestic, agricultural, and industrial water supplies. Shellfish harvest, fish production, and recreational activities can also be affected. Activities contributing to actual or potential contamination are sewage disposal methods such as septic systems, and livestock - keeping operations. Several studies on the marine water of Discover Bay have shown that the highest fecal coliform levels have occurred near the head of the bay (Gately, 1995). fel Snow Creek In the 1988 -S9 TFW ambient study, Snow Creek accounted for 55% of the fecal coliform load entering Discovery Bay (Rubida 1989). Snow Creek contributed about 80% of the fecal coliform bacterial entering Discovery Bay for the streams monitored in 1994. Bacteria loading was four times greater during the wet months compared to dry months. Fecal counts were 8 to 10 times greater at the lower most station than those measured at three sites further upstream. Higher fecal levels lower in the watershed relate to livestock activities in the pasture lands (including riparian areas) adjacent to lower Snow Creek (Gately, 1995). The Puget Sound River Basin Team noted that lower Snow Creek was impacted by animal access to the stream corridor and animal waste was evident along steam banks (Nelson et al., 1992). In addition, many of the pasture lands become inundated during flood conditions, and thus surface water transports waste materials downstream. Failing septic tanks may account for some of the higher fecal counts measured on the mainstem Snow Creek, upstream from Andrews Creek (Gately, 1995). Fecal coliform, measured by Jefferson County in 1988 and 1989 at the mouth of Andrews Creek, and at Highway 101 crossing above Crocker Lake, exceeded State Class AA standards. Coliform measured on the west side of Boulton Drive met State standards. High bacteria counts at the mouth of Crocker Lake likely relate to livestock activity in the area. The Puget Sound River Basin Team observed animal access to Andrews Creek immediately upstream and downstream from Crocker Lake. No livestock access to Andrews Creek was observed between Boulton Road and Highway 101 (Nelson et al., 1992). Salmon Creek Salmon Creek contributed about 19% of the total fecal coliform entering Discovery Bay, of the streams sampled in 1994. In the 19SS -89 TFW ambient monitoring study, Salmon contributed 42% total loading to the bay. Both studies showed increased concentration of fecal coliform downstream for all seasons (Gately, 1995). Bacteria counts exceeded State standards for samples taken in 1988 and 1989 in the lower reaches of the mainstem Salmon Creek and Houck Creek. Houck Creek had higher bacteria counts in the summer than in the winter. High bacteria counts in the summer is likely due to livestock use of adjacent pasture lands. The Puget Sound River Basin Team observed animal waste in and along the streams (Nelson et al., 1992). PH pH is a measure of the water acidity. State standards for pH for Class AA waters is a range of 6.5 to 8.5. pH can have direct and indirect effects on fish and invertebrates. Snow Creek All pH measurements taken in Snow Creek by Jefferson County in 1994 fell within the 6.5 to S.5 range. pH measurements on Andrews Creek were lower at the stations directly above and below Crocker Lake as compared to the uppermost station. At times, pH levels at the lower stations fell below 6.5, likely the result of organic acids leaching from decaying vegetation or the addition of groundwater to the stream (Gately, 1995). Salmon Creek All Salmon Creek pH measurements taken during the 1994 Jefferson County study were within the 6.5 to 8.5 range. pH levels for Salmon Creek were generally slightly higher than for Snow Creek (Gately, 1995). Dissolved Oxygen Snow Creek Dissolved oxygen levels measured on Snow Creek during the summer were below State standards of 9.5 milligrams per liter (mg /L). However, levels were always greater than 8.0 mg /L, the concentration set by EPA indicating no production impairment. Summer dissolved oxygen levels measured at the two downstream stations on Andrews Creek in 1994 were low enough to have caused moderate to severe impairment in salmonid production. The low DO levels were likely caused by the combination of warm 71 stream temperatures, low aeration within flat channel gradient reaches, and high biochemical demand from decaying canary grass (Gately, 1995). Salmon Creek Salmon Creek summer dissolved oxygen levels measured below the State standard, but were always greater than 8.0 mg'L (Gately, 1995). Stream Channel A.cursory assessment of the channel network was conducted for this analysis. The channel system was divided into segments using the procedure outlined in the Standard Methodology for Conducting Watershed Analysis, Version 3.0 (Washington Forest Practices Board, 1995). In addition these segments were grouped into geomorphic units that drain similar landforms and are expected to function similarly, respond similarly to various inputs, and have similar sensitivities to various disturbances and management practices. Reconnaissance was limited to a small sample of segments in each major sub - basin. Some TFW Ambient Monitoring data was collected and available from the Point No Point Treaty Council for Snow Creek and Salmon Creek, and from the TFW Ambient Monitoring Program for Snow Creek (Bernthal et al., in press). Channel gradients were evaluated using a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) available from the Olympic National Forest's Geographic Information System (GIS). These gradients were checked against USGS 124,000 Quadrangle Maps, and available field data. Confinement was evaluated using aerial photographs, topographic maps, with some field checking. Due to the small size of the channels and canopy cover in the upper portion of these watersheds, confinement has been difficult to address. Low altitude aerial videos (1993 of the channel were viewed for Snow and Salmon Creeks). However, these also provide little information for the small channels in the upper watersheds. No time was available to evaluate channel disturbance over the air photo record using time photo series analysis. A cursory look at 1939 and 1992 photo series was conducted. Given the time constraints placed on conducting this analysis, the assessment of the channel system is primarily predictive and based on the physical attributes of the channel as noted from 1 :24,00 topographic maps and aerial photographs. Field evidence and direct observation were limited. The channel has been stratified using a combination of gradient and channel confinement (Montgomery and Buffington. 1993). Map 14, Snow - Salmon Channel Segment Map, shows the location of stream segments. Table 18, Channel Segment Identification, displays the gradient and confinement for each segment assigned. Segment identifiers have been assigned the following designations: Salmon Creek: I - 11, Snow Creek: B 1- B 18. Andrews Creek: Cl - C7, Trapper Creek: A 1, A2. Table 18 Channel Segment Identification Confinement I SEGMENT Unconfined I. BI. 62. 2. B3.B5. G 11c VW > 4CW 134, C1. C2 Moderate 6. 7. B6 3. C6. l Oc B 10. 9. 1315. 2CW >VW<4CW Lower 9. 10h. I Ib Confined 4a. IOe. IOC 4b. 5. IOb. 8. 10a. 101. B12, B14, VW < 2CW B'. 10d. 138. 69, 10 ' i. I Ok. I l a. B.17. B 18. BI I. Al. 813. B16. C7. A'_. A3 Gradient = => < 1.0% 1.0-2.0% 2.0-40% 4.0-8.0% 8.0 - 20.0% > 20 % Channel segments may be viewed as falling into one of three general categories based on primary function or process (Washington Forest Practices Board. 1994). These categories are as follows based on channel 72 gradients: 0 to 3 % are response reaches, 3 % to 20% are transport reaches. and > 20% are source reaches. Where channels become small and steep, they are no longer segmented. Therefore, numerous source channels are omitted from Table 13, and are under - reported here. These occur as small un -named channels, and headwater channels at the top of designated segments. - Response reaches tend to show the greatest and longest term changes; disturbance takes a Iona time in moving through the system (i.e., these segments are often slow to heal). Aggrading reaches or large volumes of course sediment depositions are examples. The first response reach downslope of a disturbance or impact will often show the most obvious response. Examples include those reaches just downslope of the canyon segments or at major gradient breaks such as segments 2,3, B6, C3; and 6 and 7. Responses and impacts occur in transport reaches (especially close to the disturbance source) as well, however they are often of a more localized nature (i.e., individual pools or habitat units) and often translate through the system more rapidly by comparison to response reaches. Geomorphology The channel segments have been grouped into geomorphic units that exhibit similar controls to channel function. (in addition to gradient and confinement) major distinctions/ considerations are based on: l ) Geologic materials making up valley floor and valley walls, 2) Whether streams are flowing in (entrenched or incised) or on top of this material, 3) degree to which stream is capable of dissipating energy by working on banks or flowing overbook. As such, valley type (Cupp, 1939) and valleylbank interaction and composition are considered to be important controls on (stream) function and process. These influence sediment production, energy dissipation, and creation of habitat. The geomorphic units that have been defined for this Watershed analysis are listed and briefly described in Table 19 below. The geomorphological characterization for the watershed is somewhat incomplete, but current status/map should help facilitate an understanding of channel processes. To refine, field checking is recommended. Unit Definitions Alluvial Mainstem Channels (A 1, A2, A3) These include channels in alluvial filled valleys. In some cases these may include Glacial - fluvial (outwash, etc.), deposits. These include for the most part unconfined low to moderate aradient channels_ with a defined floodplain and in some cases terrace formation. Generally primary sediment sources are Eluvially transported from upstream, and changes in storage from bars, Eloodplain or terraces (i.e., bank, erosion). Large wood is typically recruited from adjacent riparian area. Multiple channels, side channels, forested wetlands and seasonally wet areas can be important hydrologic connections to these channel types. Generally valley wall/ stream interactions are not a component of these types. Canyon Reaches (B1. TI, L1) These are mainly transport reaches which are confined to single thread channels. Sediment production from valley walls can be significant. Bedrock type making up valley walls is a significant/ primary control on the rate of sediment production and mass wasting process. Certain bedrock types such as siltstones and mudstones of the Twin Rivers Formation (TI), are particularly active /susceptible. For example first order channels tributary to Snow Creek incise the canyon walls in almost gully like form in segments B7 and B3. These channels are susceptible to shallow rapid failures such as debris slides and flows. These are among the most active mass wasting areas of the watershed. 73 Table 19. Geomorphic Units Unit Description Geologic Formation Primary Notable Characteristics Segments Sediment Function Alluvial Mainstem Channels AI Alluvium Quaternary Alluvium Response- 1,2, BI, Storage B2, B3 A2 Alluvial Fan 3, B5, B6 A3 Entrenched in B4,(9) Alluvium Crescent Formation Channels CI Incised Crescent Basalt or Transport 5 Canyon Basalt Breccia C2 V Shaped Transport 3 Channels Glacial C3 Steep Source & Headwater " Transport Tribs Twin Rivers Formation Channels TI Incised Twin Rivers, mudstone Transport Valley walls and wall Canyon & siltstone channels produce shallow rapid mass wasting T2 V Shaped Transport Channels Glacial Deposits T3 Steep Source & 1 st & 2nd order Headwater Transport Tribs Lyre Formation Channels LI Incised Lyre Conglomerate and Transport Canyon Sandstone L2 V Shaped Transport . Channels Glacial Deposits L3 Steep Source & Headwater Transport Tribs Glacial Channels GI Incised Glacial Deposits Transport Valley walls contribute Canvon from shallow mass wasting and erosion G2 Entrenched in Glacial Deposits Transport Glacial bench buffers or on Glacial sediment from hillslope Glacial (benches) (G2) These are normally low gradient and have not downcut significant(v into the base (glacial) material. The type of material, whether till, outwash or lacustrine, determines bank integrity or sediment production rate and process from channel adjacent (bank) sources. Discrimination between glacial types (loose sand and gravel as in outwash, or compact and poorly sorted sediments as in till) is beyond the scope of this analysis. but may be significant in evaluating channel process. Wetland complexes are sometimes a feature of this geomorphic type. 74 Entrenched in Glacial (G 1) These are confined transport channels. Similar in description to incised V- shaped channels, although the material making up banks and channel adjacent slopes are glacial deposits. Sufficient detail was not collected in this analysis to discriminate between the different types of deposits. Presumably the distinction between glacial stream (outwash), glacial lake (lacustrine), and glacial till is an important influence on the size, process, and frequency of sediment produced. Wood recruitment is primarily restricted to riparian or channel adjacent areas. Unlike Incised V- shaped channels, wood and coarse sediment (mass wasting) delivery from hillslope areas are restricted by glacial bench. Incised V shaped channels (1-2, L2) These are primarily transport reaches which are steep and confined single thread channels. They are similar to canyon reaches though not as deeply _incised. The assumption is that sediment production is lower than "canyon reaches ", though the valley walls are primary source areas. Like "canyon reaches activity or sediment production and mass wasting rates are dependent on the bedrock type making up the valley walls. Wood recruitment can be expected from valley walls as well as riparian adjacent areas. Steep Headwater Channels Typically, these are first and/or second order colluvial or source channels. They may be headwater (in line with main streams) or steep tributaries to higher order channels. Many are not included on channel map (too small). They are typically steep and confined. If they are steep enough or filled with materials, debris flows can be a significant process delivering sediment and wood to downstream segments. Summary The combinations of geomorphology and stream segment are plotted the stream profile for Salmon and Snow Creeks, see Figure S. This provides an integrated picture of stream character (geomorphology, gradient and confinement) and energy distribution through the system. In general each watershed can be viewed, from the headwaters to the mouth, as containing the following: Steep headwaters and mountain (V shaped) channels; a gradient break (slight in Snow) in the upper glacial depositional terrain; a relatively steep canyon or gorge reach connecting the upland to lowland areas; a transitional depositional area of alluvial fans at the mouths of the canyon sections; and the alluvial valleys of the lower systems. Figure S Snow - Salmon Profiles & Geomorphic Units Salmon Creek Channel Profile 1800 1600 - 1400 _ 1200 - u 1000 0 ',� 600 w 600 400 200 0 0 5000 10000 15000 20000 Channel Length in Feet 75 25000 30000 3000 2500 2000 - -0 1500 .2 m w 1000 500 0 Snow Creek Channel Profile 0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 Channel Length in Feet Channel Reference Condition Since unmanaged conditions do not exist except in the upper portions of Snow Creek, reference conditions are based on predictions of function based on stream characteristics and geomorphic type (see geomorphic conditions under the characterization section). Following large stand replacement tires, sediment production and delivery to channels was expected to be high in these areas. However, large wood and riparian trees, either standing or down. probably remained and helped attenuate the movement of sediment downslope or the effects of sediment once in the channel. Based on 1939 aerial photos all canyon type, of V- shaped mountain geomorphic types (list) i.e. those with an inner gorge type structure, show much survival of large trees within these areas. 1939 photos also shoe numerous mass wasting or erosion sites from canyon/ inner gorse walls. Some areas such as Andrews Canyon (C4 and C3a) and Snow Canyon (B7, B3, and 139) are particularly bare and may have been salvage logged. Lower Watershed Little information exists regarding condition of lower watershed prior to settlement of the lower valley and conversion from forested or wetland ecosystems. There was likely greater pool frequency and residual pool depth as compared to current condition. By 1939 most of the lower system was channelized, including major stream diversions. There were probably more secondary channels and interconnected wetlands throughout. Channel Current Condition Current conditions of the stream channels are reflected in the stream survey data provided by I) Point No Point Treaty Council, and 2) NW Indian Fisheries Commission - TFW Ambient ;Monitoring Program. 1992 aerial photographs and 1993 low altitude channel videos provide an overvie�.% of channel location, riparian condition obvious erosion sources. 76 Snow and Andrews Creeks (Including Trapper and R&on) Upper watershed V shaped mountain streams and headwater channels Because of the confined nature of the channel, channel condition is difficult to assess by air photo inspection. Generally, stream survey data is lacking in the upper watershed. Data exists to RM 6.4 in Snow Creek (top of the canyon reach) and was not available for Salmon and Andrews. However, above RM 6.4 in Snow, and in the upper portions of Andrews Creek, the stream is quite steep generally a boulder cascade or step pool. Pools are (frequently) created by boulders, rock obstructions and steps. It is expected that this area of the watershed is less dependent on LWD to create structural complexity in the channel than areas downstream (below B 10, A I, and C7 and C3). In addition, since these areas tend to be steep transport type reaches, sediment related disturbances are expected to be localized and relatively short lived as explained in the characterization. Because of the discussion in the preceding paragraph, stream bank and valley wall condition (i.e. presence or absence of active erosion sources) should provide a surrogate for channel condition as related to sediment inputs. 1993 air photos show dense riparian corridor and a general lack of obvious sediment inputs. Glacial geomorphic types (segments C5b and C6) The character of glacial geomorphic types is forced pool riffle with pools forced at least in part by the presence of large "wood. Therefore riparian condition and LWD availability is expected to relate directly to stream condition, habitat complexity and overall health. Pool frequency and in stream LWD loading may provide a good indicator of the current condition of this type. This information is lacking but current riparian condition will serve as a surrogate. Riparian condition for C6 is young, sparse, and deciduous - Reference Riparian section. Current condition may be lacking in pools and in channel LWD (especially conifers). Sediment is predicted to be primarily stream bank or surface erosion from roads. The gradient is high enough to readily transport fines. Glacial terrace buffers sediment delivery from hillslopes and many potential road inputs. Sediment loading is not predicted to be negatively impacting the channel. Canyon Reaches (Geomorphic type T1, Segments 137, 63, C4 and C5a) Stream type as determined from 1993 channel videos is forced pool riffle and step pools (cascades in the upper) with steps typically dependent on wood in the lower section and wood. boulders and bedrock in the upper. Currently wood appears to be primarily in the form of jams, and primarily from hardwoods. Based on inspection of the video imagery, in channel LWD loading appears low and concentrated in jams (suspect reference condition is more distributed with isolated pieces or groups and root wads). Channel condition was not observable. Therefore riparian condition was used as an indicator of in- channel habitat condition. Currently the riparian zone is hardwood dominated. Canyon walls are expected to be a source of wood recruitment within this geomorphic type. The Snow Creek canyon walls are quite sparse, especially the north side of B7 and throughout BS, and have been that way since 1939 (following stand replacing fires in the 1920's and perhaps salvage logging). Canyon walls and hillslope channels or gullies draining them are still sources of active sediment production. However, sediment production via mass wasting has decreased from conditions evident in 1939 aerial photographs (again following stand replacing fires in the 1920's and perhaps salvage logging). It is also believed that coarse sediment produced in these reaches is of lower quality (less durable) and more likely to produce fines than other areas of the watershed because bedrock consists primarily of siltstone and mudstone components. 77 Lower lVa[ershed Alluvial and alluvial fan geomorphic Types (Al, A2, A3; Seaments 131 -136, CI -C3) The stream character is plain bed, pool riffle, and forced pool riffle types. According to Point No Point Treaty Council stream survey data, currently pool formation is primarily controlled by wood (82% of pools were formed by in- channel LWD; roots of standing trees, logs, and jams) in the lower section of Snow Creek (roughly segments B 1 - B3)(Bernthal et al., in press). In the upper segment B5 and B6, pool formations are controlled by bedrock and boulders. The transition from upper to lower is accompanied by a dramatic widening of the valley bottom. The percentage of pool habitat is 47% in the lower and 19 % in the upper segment respectively. The low pool frequency may reflect a lack of in- channel wood availability and /or a change in pool forming processes from reference conditions. These areas of channel have been straightened, constricted and bank- hardened. This in turn could result in reduction in pools formed at , bends, bank cuts, or related to bedforms. Conversion of a forested landscape to pasture, and diking and straightening of the channels have occurred in the lower systems. Detailed analysis of effects are beyond the scope of this analysis, but a few elements /factors are worthy of note: • Formally at least Andrews creek did not drain to Crocker Lake, and there was no outlet of the lake into Snow Creek. Assuming that area is directly proportional to runoff, this increases the flow into Snow Creek by approximately 1/3. Potential channel adjustments include increases in bed roughness (substrate size), changes in cross section area of flow (changes that decrease velocity or increase area of flow), and downcutting (disconnection to floodplain ). • Diking and straightening of Andrews Creek in segments C2 and C3 have resulted in entrenchment of the stream into alluvial deposits (geomorphic type A3). Formally seasonal wet areas (meadows/ pasture), and'or near surface groundwater areas may readily drain to these stream segments. • Historically Salmon and Snow Creeks joined at Rill 0.6 on Snow Creek (Nelson et al. 1992). Stream segments below this point (B 1) are presumably greatly decreased in flow as compared to reference conditions. Changes in stream character, substrate size, cross section shape or other parameter have likely resulted. Salmon Creek No field work was conducted in Salmon Creek by this analyst. The quality of aerial videos is poor for most of the Salmon Creek channel network, in part due to dense riparian cover and small channel size. The primary differences from Snow and Andrews are in the canyon reaches due to bedrock composition or quality of material making up canyon walls (C l and C2), and the extent of glacially influenced channel types (geomorphic types G t and G2). Otherwise the discussion is the same as Snow and Andrews Creeks above and should be based on character and function as determined by geomorphic type. Canyon Reach (geomorphic type Cl, segments 4 & 5) Bedrock type is basalt breccia and or basalt (volcanics). These rock types tend to be more massive and resistant to mass wasting and erosion than those composing canyon or inner gorge walls in Snow and Andrews Creeks. Depth of incision is likewise less. Nevertheless, stream channel conditions and hillslope - channel interactions are predicted to be similar. Riparian vegetation, including vegetation on inner gorge or canyon slopes is dense. Density of vegetation restricts direct inspection of channel condition in these reaches by remote sensing (air photos and channel videos). 78 Glacial Channels (G2) As for Snow and Andrews discussion though wetlands appear to be larger component especially for segments 7, lower 8, and upper 6. Stream channel condition in these areas will relate directly to wetland condition (see hydrology module this report). Relationship of activities to erosion and water quality The lower portions of the streams are "depositional" reaches (pa 62). Natural, on -going geologic conditions coupled with erosion from human activities have resulted in sediment being deposited in the tower mainstems of Snow and Salmon Creeks. Human activity such as road crossings, active work in waterways, livestock in streams, and increased runoff, often increase bank erosion. Road construction and maintenance have also been identified as sources of sediment. Sedimentation can raise the elevation of the river bed which makes the river more prone to flooding. The Finer particles can fill the gravels and degrade fish spawning habitat; particles can also carry fecal coliform bacteria that affect shellfish health and are a health concern in drinking water. In all, sedimentation is a serious concern in the analysis area as it can affect the values and uses of the rivers and streams. Riparian and Wetlands Reference conditions As the glaciers retreated, ponds formed where the ;round -water table intersected the surface some in depressions or low gradient areas. Eventually, streams interconnected most of the ponds and they became wetlands. Wetlands were scattered throughout this physiographic unit and occurred in all the geologic types. They most frequently occurred in valleys, gently sloping, and relatively flat areas. In the impermeable bedrock units, the flatter topography of U- shaped valleys detained runoff and stream flows creating wetlands. In recessional outwash, topography, underlying bedrock, and in some areas, underlying till, has caused the detention of water. Forested and shrub wetlands predominated in the mountains. Many are impounded open water and emergent areas. Wetlands dominated by emergent vegetation were uncommon in this area.(Nelson et al., 1992) Shade Shade or canopy closure, plays an important role in governing stream temperatures. Fish require relatively cool, stable water temperatures. Some assumptions can be made from historical disturbance patterns on the canopy closure that has historically shaded the streams. As large fires have burned through the area on a 200 year cycle, it can be assumed that for several decades following the fires, shading would be very poor. Following the second or third decade, it is likely that with natural regeneration canopy closure would have increased and the streams would have then been well shaded until the next major fire. Snow Creek would not have historically been impacted by Crocker Lake which is a shallow lake with little shading. At the present time the lake heats up in the summer and warm water flows from it into Snow Creek. Historically Crocker Lake had no outlet and Andrews Creek flowed south into the Little Quilcene River. After European occupancy, Andrews Creek was rechanneled into Crocker Lake and the lake was connected to Snow Creek. Coarse Woody Debris Coarse woodv debris is critical as Fish habitat, providing protective cover, creating pools, and contributing to stream shading. Coarse woody debris is also critical for amphibian, mollusk and arthropod species. These species have limited dispersal capabilities, which increases their vulnerability to disturbances from Fire, harvest, and other activities. Bats and species of small mammals are also closely associated with riparian areas. 79 Some assumptions can be made from historical disturbance patterns on Coarse Woody Debris availability. The large fires burned throughout the area on 200 year cycles. Towards the end of the cycles there would be a good supply of large material from the current stand. Fire would have consumed much of the smaller material and killed most of the large trees. As the new stand started. there would have been an abundance of coarse woody debris from falling fire - killed snags. The new forest would not have been able to contribute to the coarse woody debris for approximately 50 years. It is likely that there was coarse woody debris at all times with different decay rates, given the mix of species and sizes. There would have been an abundance of wood that was fresh following fire, then it would slowly decay with an absence of new hard wood during the stand development period. The different decay rates of various species and the variety of sizes would contribute to diversity, but there would have been little new wood for a number of years. Coarse woody debris following timber harvest beginning in this century would have been reduced as wood was hauled away prior to stand regeneration. Old decayed wood would not have been replaced with large size hard wood. Stream Bank Stability Stream banks would have likely been relatively stable. There would have been coarse woodv debris incorporated into the streams and stream banks and this would have helped stabilize them. The fact that for most of the time the watershed was covered by forest vegetation would have slowed the reaction time of storm flow events, thus reducing potential peak flows. This would have helped minimize the impacts on the stream banks. Following major fire disturbance, increased flows following storm events would likely have had severe impacts on stream bank stability. Riparian and Wetlands Current Conditions Wetlands Freshwater wetlands (Map 2) scattered throughout Snow Creek vallev are most likely supported by runoff from adjacent hills, groundwater, and stream flow from Andrews, Snow, and Salmon creeks. Emergent wetland types are most numerous, with few small ponds, forested and scrub -shrub wetlands. Crocker Lake and its adjacent wetlands contain a variety of types. Peat has formed in the Crocker Lake system, and also in wetlands near the U.S. Highway 101 and State Highwav 104 interchange. Wetlands in lower Snow Creek valley where Snow and Salmon creeks flow, are mostly grazed pastures. Ungrazed areas include diverse forested and eme gent wetland areas, and an impounded pond near the intersection of U.S. Highway 101 and State Highway 20. Limited information is available to make conclusions about wetlands and groundwater exchange in the watersheds. However, in areas where impermeable material such as bedrock or glacial till underlies recessional outwash, surface runoff and stream flow may be detained to form wetlands. Some wetlands that occur in permeable glacial outwash with high water tables may be sites of groundwater discharge. They may also recharge groundwater as the water table drops. The Crocker Lake system is an example of this type of exchange. Some wetlands may also provide recharge if they extend below the nearly impermeable glacial till laver into underlying outwash (Nelson et al., 1992). Other wetlands are places where groundwater aquifers discharge near or at the surface. Sometimes recharge and discharge occurs either simultaneously or during different times of year within the same wetland. �lany wetlands throughout the watersheds provide water to perennial and intermittent streams. Most of the wetlands in the Olympic foothills and mountains collect water that supplies base flow to perennial streams, and are often the headwaters (Nelson et al., 1992). The wetlands found in the Olympic foothills and mountains are generally in better condition than wetlands in the lower elevations of the watersheds. The upland wetlands contain some of the most diverse habitat. Beaver activities have enriched habitat diversity within several stream - adjacent wetlands through impoundment of water and creation of a mosaic of habitat types. Beaver contribute to special habitat so features such at snags and pools. Beaver influenced wetlands often retain water for longer periods of time in comparison with other wetlands associated with streams (Nelson et al., 1992). Wetlands provide for important flood and stormwater abatement. Although flooding is not yet a major problem in much of the watershed, areas such as the Snow Creek Valley experience periodic flooding. Flooding in the valley would be intensified without functioning wetlands in the Olympic Foothills and Mountains, and in Snow Creek Valley itself. Wetlands in the higher elevations modify flooding events by retaining and slowing water in the upper part of the watershed. Wetlands in the valley, such as the Crocker Lake system, retain large quantities of water and significantly slow flows. Wetlands and wooded riparian areas farther down gradient in the valley slow flows and allow floodwater to spread out and deposit sediment outside the stream channel.(Nelson et al, 1992) There is no substantive information on the amount of wetland acreage that has been eliminated in the watersheds. However, large numbers have undergone alteration, are considerably impaired and do not function to their full capacity. The fact that no high quality (relatively pristine) wetlands are identified for Discovery Bay watershed through the Department of Natural Resources Natural Heritage Program (Norwood, 1992) may be indicative of the extent of alteration caused by road and highway building, agriculture, and forest management practices. Wetland plant communities and wildlife habitat within the watersheds have been altered by agricultural practices in wetlands such as livestock ;razing and pasture seeding. Some wetlands used for livestock grazing have likely been artificially drained to enhance pasture values through reduction of the water storage capacity and water detention time. Grazing has reduced natural assimilation and biofiltering functions of wetland through loss of riparian vegetation. Water quality function, flood abatement, and support of stream flow are thereby diminished. Livestock grazing in wetlands has been observed in the Snow Creek Valley. Grazing and pasture seeding have likely replaced native plant species intolerant of such disturbance with more tolerant non - native plant species. The Puget Sound Cooperative River Basin Team noted non - native species at nearly half the sites visited within Discovery Bay watershed (Nelson et al., 1992). Timber harvest within the watersheds has likely reduced forested wetland habitat. Harvest practices have retained few wetland riparian buffers. A number of wetlands are intersected with logging roads, some without culverts. Sediment is transported from road surfaces to wetlands in areas where no culverts exist and water over tops the road. At a few sites, slash and other debris have been deposited in wetlands. Tangled debris piles in wetlands slow the re- establishment of vegetation. The Puget Sound Cooperative River Basin Team observed that one wetland in the headwaters of Andrews Creek had been filled with debris and used as a landing (Nelson et al., 1992). Residential and commercial development (with conventional septic systems), railroad, road, and parking area construction, ditching and stream rerouting have altered both estuarine and freshwater wetlands within the analysis area. The estuarine emergent wetland occupying the delta at the mouths of Snow and Salmon creeks is the largest salt marsh in the Discovery Bay watershed. Although degraded by past activities and current land uses, this estuarine wetland supports a healthy plant community interspersed with tidal channels (Nelson et al.. 1992). _. Coarse Woody Debris Recruitnient Potential There has not been a basin wide survey to summarize current CWD loading, but analysis of the Recruitment Potential in the riparian areas was done using the Washington State Methodology for Watershed Analysis (Washington Forest Practices Board, 1991). The analysis utilizes aerial photos to approximate a 66 -foot riparian zone (State riparian zone width) on both sides of the stream to analyze CWD recruitment potential Sl Coniferous tree species produce the best CWD, because they can ;row larger than deciduous trees and because they deteriorate at a slower rate. The following streams (Table 20) were anahzed for riparian tree types (these streams were studied because they were thought to contain fish). Stream analysis areas are on file at Quilcene Ranger District. Streams that have high percentages of their length rated "good ", are considered to have riparian zones that are functioning sufficiently, or have the potential to function sufficiently. These can provide habitat material for fish and ground - dwelling wildlife species, as well as provide for other biological functions that rely on the input of large organic material. Streams with high percentages of length rated "poor" show deficits in their ability to provide for fish, wildlife and biological needs in the riparian zones. Opportunities exist in poor and fair conditions for rehabilitation to sufficiently functioning systems. The aerial photo interpretation is a guide to selecting areas for site - specific analysis. Site - specific analysis will determine which areas will benefit from restoration of these streams and riparian areas. Good: Areas have existing large wood from coniferous trees in the riparian zone at the present time. Fair: Areas have existing large deciduous trees, or the potential to produce large coniferous trees in the future. Poor: Areas have no large standing wood, have sparse large deciduous trees, have sparse young conifers or young deciduous stands. Table 20. Estimated Total Stream Length CWD Recruitment Potential SCre3 Good %� ................. Rixon 59 0 41 ..✓�... :.. .. �::- T:::'v$ iii �ijk� .� <::<: > >:: ::>::::s ><: >; :.�1��::i: :i.4 ::i:�' ^i'�i:S i`i:•i }i R4�Ji::i :::.:: Andrews Trib 76 14 10 - «. ;:tee .::: >:: » >:: >: »:- >::::< a, :::::::.::::::::::. '; <: .: -..:: .. . :,. . ., : ::: Snow S Fk 7S 22 0 Frapze€ . :....... b'? ... ....... ........ .� ... ..........:... ...... ... ...... ........: Salmon 41 36 23 Salmon S Fk 9 85 6 Table 21. Estimated National Forest CWD Recruitment Potential The National Forest is in better shape than the rest of the watershed in terms of CWD recruitment potential. The National Forest in the Rixon, Snow and Trapper subwatersheds was heavily cut over in the 1920s and has had 70+ y ears to recover. The majority of harvest there since the 1960s has been commercial thinning that usually leaves the larger coniferous trees to continue growth. The areas that were thinned, may not now have good CWD as wood was removed, however, the potential to produce it is good. Where commercial thinning has not occurred, the trees and potential CWD is smaller in size. Salmon creek and it's tributaries have had more recent impact from regeneration harvesting than Snow creek. Much of the 82 Rixon 100 0 0 Snow S Fk 78 2) 0 - «. ;:tee .::: >:: » >:: >: »:- >::::< a, :::::::.::::::::::. '; <: .: -..:: ::.. ., : ::: Salmon 6:1 j:6,:::... The National Forest is in better shape than the rest of the watershed in terms of CWD recruitment potential. The National Forest in the Rixon, Snow and Trapper subwatersheds was heavily cut over in the 1920s and has had 70+ y ears to recover. The majority of harvest there since the 1960s has been commercial thinning that usually leaves the larger coniferous trees to continue growth. The areas that were thinned, may not now have good CWD as wood was removed, however, the potential to produce it is good. Where commercial thinning has not occurred, the trees and potential CWD is smaller in size. Salmon creek and it's tributaries have had more recent impact from regeneration harvesting than Snow creek. Much of the 82 ^Rair' category b mature red alder stands which came inulona the streams following logging. While red alder can provide good woody structure, it also decays very quickly and isonneinashort time. The portion o[ the watershed off the National Forest has had u lot of new regeneration harvest for the second time this century. There are also a number of pastures and open lands as the streams reach tile � valley bottom. Forest Type - Deciduous trees, common invaders uf disturbed mcsic sites are associated with riparian zonrs undme habitat m many bird species, both resident and nennopico(migratory species, and includes yellow warbler, willow flycatcher, � downy `=v�dpcck�� common merganser, h|uc��mn� The forest type � �npo�an� especially in riparian areas. This indicates different habitat types that are important mo variety ofspecies. Much of the deciduous forest consists of red alder that has invaded following regeneration harvest. Further discussion of the habitat created by the forest type can be found in the wildlife portion of the Landscape ' Functions (page 47)' . Table 22' Estimated Total Stream Length Riparian Forest Type — -- - -- Coniferous tree types /on^n, more vmmCI"rv= Deciduous tree type 7D%or more deciduous trees - Mixed category all other forested |uod ` Non-forested land treeless areas Table 23. Estimated National Forest Riparian Forest Type /omm more mwxou"o Deciduous tree type 70%nr more deciduous trees Mixndrutcoory all other forested land Non-forested land ' treeless urczo ` ' Snow S Fk 26 52 22 Rom Snow S Fk 26 52 22 0 0 aufi M& Salmon 15 26 49 10 Coniferous tree types /on^n, more vmmCI"rv= Deciduous tree type 7D%or more deciduous trees - Mixed category all other forested |uod ` Non-forested land treeless areas Table 23. Estimated National Forest Riparian Forest Type Coniferous tree typo /omm more mwxou"o Deciduous tree type 70%nr more deciduous trees Mixndrutcoory all other forested land Non-forested land ' treeless urczo ` ' Snow S Fk 26 52 22 Rom Salmon 57 4 39 0 aufi M& Coniferous tree typo /omm more mwxou"o Deciduous tree type 70%nr more deciduous trees Mixndrutcoory all other forested land Non-forested land ' treeless urczo ` ' 83 Shade Table 24. Estimated percent shade cover of area streams Percent of River Length ..... PerrcnFSas#e: >i >> ?ltn!• 7E'H3° pit 74'a �F- tt)3s; 0'6•�a Rixon Cr. (2.2 mi) 0 78 10 12 0 >: Attt :raKs:Gr.:c< ::: ; ;: ><::: >::;(> 9sn�} ; ::::: ; ;: :::;:•fl;; » » > ; ;: < >:. >:<. ;:<��:. » ; ;:::.; :- ; ; ;:• >:# $: ;::.: >:. ;:•: ;: ; ;:<,:.,,1,. :,::,. ;,: ,,....,:...:::::.:: ,. Andrews Tributaries (3 mi) 0 57 43 0 0 �i��H :y�.1: ?`�:��: ^~:Cv:�: ;:;: ;:; i:!�:tv,• F:jl1�!7'r:�: :: ^t:: >: ;i�}:P:�i } }:':: +. i:: ?: :.`- i:":::. bM iii:Y•:i:?:J:•.�. -.:; .�.Z ..::. ^: :.::ii :w .:.. :.:.:...... 0 ::: �. .......... 4 .. .. : Snow Cr south fork (l. I mi) ;Trappet::�E; . <:::€}, 3; R; t) :<:::: Salmon Cr (5.1 mi) 28 ; ; ;: ;: ; ;:�: ; ; ; ;.:::.:::.. 24 3 fiG ::.: 35 69 •.... 27 0 10 _; Salttx�ts: Cr..: ncs �,uib..�4tntT.::::: :•::,.::.:•• ..... .:... ...... Salmon Cr south trib(I.3 mi) 100 0 0 0 0 Table 25. Estimated percent shade cover of area streams on the National Forest Fish The Salmon Creek and Snow Creek watersheds support both anadromous and resident fish in 18 total miles of stream habitat utilized. Chum and steelhead are under NNtFS review for listing under the Endangered Species Act and coho are not recommended at present. (Pro Salmon petition to the National it larine Fisheries Service, iVlarch 11, 1994). Conditions and ecological processes have changed from historical conditions. Channel reconstruction /alignment, diversion, changes in input and routing of sediment and large woody debris (LWD), and fish management action have all contributed to the changes in productive capacity of the drainages. Methods, Data Sources, Strength of analysis This section was completed by compiling data regarding the historic and present condition of Salmon and Snow Creeks Data were gathered from county, state and federal agencies, the Point No Point Treaty Council, journal articles and local authors and residents. Key issues were clarified with local experts familiar with the streams. Analysis of the riparian conditions was limited to approximately 66 feet on either side of channel (pg 80). Historic conditions of riverine habitat and species assemblage were estimated from historic records, historic trends of nearby habitat, and anecdotal information. Field time was spent to familiarize the author with river reaches of key concern and to verify main issues. Reference Conditions Habitat Information on historic conditions is scarce. The general character of the drainage was that of a post - glacial valley dominated by western redcedar and Douglas -fir, Sitka spruce was prevalent in the lower stream corridor. The instream habitat in the steeper upper watersheds was likely made up of a complex combination of step pools and riffles created and stabilized by abundant Large Woody Debris (LWD). The creek flowed through a constricted, incised canyon with shallow, porous soils over a shale -t- pe material 84 Percent of River Length �,;:;.:o:�.: 0 :. ;•,. :.:•fi:� >.�•�:.� 100 ;r:<:::= .,�:..• 0 0 0 Rixon Cr. (.5 mi) : Snow :>rc ;::: <:. >::: >' >:<: >:: f _:•m� : _ 69 ... 0 .. 0 Snow Cr south fork (l.l mi) 28 3 Salmon Cr (1.2 mi) 84 3 13 0 0 ;<�stct�tstc:r„x s �. (.. ,. ...1 ........................... . . Fish The Salmon Creek and Snow Creek watersheds support both anadromous and resident fish in 18 total miles of stream habitat utilized. Chum and steelhead are under NNtFS review for listing under the Endangered Species Act and coho are not recommended at present. (Pro Salmon petition to the National it larine Fisheries Service, iVlarch 11, 1994). Conditions and ecological processes have changed from historical conditions. Channel reconstruction /alignment, diversion, changes in input and routing of sediment and large woody debris (LWD), and fish management action have all contributed to the changes in productive capacity of the drainages. Methods, Data Sources, Strength of analysis This section was completed by compiling data regarding the historic and present condition of Salmon and Snow Creeks Data were gathered from county, state and federal agencies, the Point No Point Treaty Council, journal articles and local authors and residents. Key issues were clarified with local experts familiar with the streams. Analysis of the riparian conditions was limited to approximately 66 feet on either side of channel (pg 80). Historic conditions of riverine habitat and species assemblage were estimated from historic records, historic trends of nearby habitat, and anecdotal information. Field time was spent to familiarize the author with river reaches of key concern and to verify main issues. Reference Conditions Habitat Information on historic conditions is scarce. The general character of the drainage was that of a post - glacial valley dominated by western redcedar and Douglas -fir, Sitka spruce was prevalent in the lower stream corridor. The instream habitat in the steeper upper watersheds was likely made up of a complex combination of step pools and riffles created and stabilized by abundant Large Woody Debris (LWD). The creek flowed through a constricted, incised canyon with shallow, porous soils over a shale -t- pe material 84 that are unstable when devoid of vegetation (Nelson, et. al., 1992). The lower valley habitat flowed through Glacial outwash and likely was characterized by abundant LWD, creating deep pools and off channel ovenvinterinG habitat within a more sinuous stream than we know today (Nelson, et. al., 1992). The LWD was a major habitat forming factor in the streams, providing for a stable streambed, energy dissipation, sediment retention and habitat diversity to meet species life stage requirements (Nelson, et. al., 1992). The concentration of LWD may have been sporadic over the centuries given the relatively frequent natural and human - caused disturbances (pg 79). There was likely frequent interaction between the streams and their flood plains, thereby minimizing flood damage in the riparian zone. The instream wood and intact riparian zone throughout the watersheds provided some hydraulic control for stream bed stability, thereby withstanding high flow events with less damage than we see today in the areas prone to mass wasting. Species Except for brook trout, it is likely that the fishes currently utilizing the aquatic habitat were also present prior to Europeans colonization. See map 15 for distribution of species throughout the drainages. Table 26. - Fishes likely inhabiting Salmon and Snow Creeks prior to European settlement. (Johnson, WDFW, personal communication). Family Genus - species Common Name Race Cottidae Cottus sp. sculpin Petromyzontidae Lampetra tridentatus Pacific lamprey Lampetra richardsoni Western brook lamprey Gasterosteidae Gasterosteus aculeatus threespine stickelback Salmonidae Oncorhynchus keta chum summer Oncorhynchus kisutch coho Oncorhynchus mykiss steelhead winter Oncorhynchus clarki cutthroat trout searun resident Fish Conununity The fish diversity in Salmon and Snow Creeks prior to European settlement could be traced back to geologically- recent glacial events. The most important aspect of the Pleistocene history of western Washington on fish distribution was the glaciation of the Puget Sound region (MacPhail 1967). The area under analysis was covered by the glacial ice up to a mile thick (USDA Forest Service Dungeness Watershed Analysis. 1995). if similar to ancient Lake Russell in the southern Olympics (MacPhail, 1967), freshwater lakes might have formed at the ice margins, providing refuge for freshwater species. With Glacial retreat to present day Everett, a marine route for invasion by saltwater and estuarine species was opened. The actual route and origin of marine fishes in the immediate post - glacial period is secondary to the issue of stock distinction. This is of prime consideration in characterizing the uniqueness and thus genetic "value" of a population and the habitat that supports it. Ricker defines stock as "... fish spawning in a particular lake or stream (or portion thereof) at a particular season, which to a substantial degree do not interbreed with any group spawning in a different place or in the same place at a different season... "(Ricker, 1970). Anadromous distribution prior to European settlement was likely similar to that of today. Stream gradient changes pose the main barriers. It is conceivable that an abundant supply of LWD may have created occasional log jams that periodically reduced anadromous range even when compared to today's (albeit si degraded) habitat. Resident fish range was also likely limited in the steeper gradients and reduced stream Flows at the headwaters. Current Conditions Habitat The most significant issues affecting the fish habitat in Snow and Salmon creeks center around excessive aggredation with little floodplain development, high water temperatures, a change in flow regime, poor water quality, and increased sediment. The change in water quantity affects overwintering juvenile salmon and returning adult salmon access. Increased sedimentation affects coho and chum habitat by reducincy . spawning gravel quality (Discovery Bay Watershed Management Committee, 1996). The limiting factors for coho in the two systems include overwintering survival, reduced summer low flow, and reduced habitat quantity and quality. The limiting factors for chum include a change in flow patterns affecting scour and deposition of fines in the spawning gravel. This is especially notable in the lower reaches of Snow Creek (Johnson, personal communication). Forest practices and associated roading often contribute to limiting upstream passage and a change in flow regime. Culverts may create a fish passage barrier for resident fish migrating upstream to spawn. Seven such culverts exist in the analysis area. A change in now regime is typified by greater extremes in summer and winter that reduces the productive capacity. Extreme low flows in summer result in stressful temperature increases and stranding of fish. Extreme high flows in winter can flush out juveniles and produce an environment that reduces suitable holding areas for returning adult spawners. Increased sediment can suffocate eggs in the gravel and increased aggredation associated with high energy flows can scour redds, killing the eggs. Table 27. Select Information From Ambient Monitoring Data collected by the Point No Point Treaty Council for Snow Creek, (Bernthal, in press) Segment River Pool:Riffle Residual IVlax Primary Structure Av. #log Dominant Substrates Mile Cascade Pool Pool for Pool Formation s: I 00 (decreasing order) Depth (m) Depth (decreas. order) (m) 0 0 -0.53 ( 0.53 1.12 stand. tree roots 2.6 NA 1 0.53- 47:44:9 0.48 1.4 stand. tree roots 7.1 Gravel 4.1 logs Cobble debris jams Sand SiltliViud 2 4.1 -5.5 19:53:28 0.36 0.7 rocksiboulders 6.4 Cobble bedform Boulder Bedrock Gravel 3 5.5 -7.5 37:26:36 0.40 1.02 rocks'boulders 8.9 Bedrock Cobble bedform Boulder Gravel Anadromous habitat on Snow Creek is limited by a waterfall to the lowest 7.5 miles. The Point No Point Treaty Council Ambient Monitoring effort divided the gradient into four segments: 0) 0.01 -1% from the mouth to river mile 0.53, 1) 1% -2% in the next 3.6 miles, 2) 24% in the next 1.4 miles (average 3.8 %) and 3) 4 -6% in the last 2 miles (average 4.9 %) (Bernthal et al., in press). The resident habitat bevond the waterfall has a gradient of 8.1 %over 2.6 miles, including unnamed tributaries. Lareer tributaries to Snow Creek such as Trapper and Andrews creeks also contribute to total available fish habitat. Trapper Creek contributes two miles. Andrews Creek has 2.8 miles of anadromous habitat averaoine 2% �_radient, including Crocker Lake, utilized by coho and steelhead. There are three and one half miles of Andrews 36 Creek resident habitat averaging 10% gradient, including tributaries such as Rixon Creek. Salmon Creek anadromous habitat extends to approximately mile two with a gradient of 3 %. The resident Fish habitat above anadromous barriers has a gradient of 6.3% over 4.7 miles, including tributaries. More detailed habitat information for the anadromous portion of Snow Creek is available from the Point No Point Treaty Council. Aquatic Habitat Connectivity throughout the Watershed A review of the gradient profile (figure 8) locates the trans portationaI and response reaches. This analysis helps determine the primary function of the channel as it relates to sediment.and, in a much more general way, large in- channel wood. It ties together the flow of energy and materials from the headwaters to the anadromous lowlands. This analysis helps evaluate the vulnerability valuable habitat by locating beneficial or degraded habitat connected by transport reaches. Depositional reaches include Salmon Creek within Section 28 and also below West Uncas Road. The Snow Creek deposition area is longer, extending from its proximity with Highway 101 to the mouth. These deposition reaches are all less than 2% and immediateiv follow reaches ranging from 4 to 20% gradient. The remaining reaches within the watersheds are either source or transport reaches. Analysis of the riparian condition within and between transport reaches allows the connectivity to be ascertained. The connectivity is dependent upon the location of unstable slopes and large woody debris relative to these reaches. Streams that, by nature, have intermediate low gradient or response reaches have less tendency to transport material all the way downstream as opposed to streams whose response reach is limited to the lowest most reach. Salmon Creek falls into the former category while Snow does in the latter. According to the riparian analysis, the LWD recruitment potential in the headwaters of Salmon Creek above the first depostional reach is fair. This is due to mostly mature, mixed riparian tree composition, a composition that does not provide for long term LWD recruitment. After the depositional reach in section 28, the next transport reach once again provides only a fair LWD recruitment potential from thin riparian buffers. Nearly all of Snow Creek and its tributaries comprise the transport portions of this drainage down to its proximity with Highway 101 where the gradient rapidly drops to less than 2 %. The response reach on Snow Creek extends from roughly the Boulton Farm, along Highway 101 to the mouth - precisely where the flooding has been a problem in recent years. The riparian condition in the upstream transport reaches are generally good with dense, mature conifer species One exception lies in the southeast corner of section 9 near the confluence with Rixon creek. Here the small buffer of a clearcut has left a sparse concentration of mature alder. The significance of locating transport and deposition reaches is more pertinent to sediment as opposed to LWD due to the character of the headwater vallevs. The many branches of the drainage that make up the headwaters are narrow, often narrower than the length of wood within the stream or in the riparian zones. The net result is that wood from the headwaters, despite being in a transport reach, does not travel far from its recruitment site and therefore contributes little to downstream L%V'D concentrations. Determining whether unstable slope areas and, to some extent, LWD recruitment sites are in transport or depostional areas can help us establish the degree of potential positive or negative impact to downstream habitat. This information can also prioritize and locate restoration efforts as well as avoid potential future degradation. The extent of habitat connectivity %within a watershed is mirrored by the degree of downstream consequences from a ground disturbing upstream activity. For example, intensive logging and road construction likely has contributed to increased runoff, sedimentation, and bedload instability in the lower watersheds. The increased runoff and sedimentation combined with the channelization of lower Snow Creek have probably combined to accentuate the scour and fill events. As another example, the re- routing 87 of Andrew's Creek into Crocker Lake may have exceeded the channel's capacity, causing bank erosion in Snow Creek down stream. Refugia In attempting to identify valuable habitat suitable to serve as refuge for fish species it is helpful to ascertain what areas are I ) experiencing an upward trend in habitat condition, 2) have previously been protected from degrading events, and 3) whose populations have not been compromised genetically. A more genetically intact population would have an increased protection value. Essentially all of the Salmon and Snow Creek watersheds have been affected by fire. logging activity and fish stocking, so there are no prime candidate areas to serve as refuge for fish species. However, if one were to choose the areas that best fit the criteria outlined above, the most likely candidates would include, in descending order, the unnamed tributary to Salmon Creek that enters the south bank at the county line, the South Fork of Snow Creek, Trapper Creek, and Rixon Creek. All these streams contain resident cutthroat trout and are assumed to contain sculpin. All these areas have been recovering from previous disturbances, the greatest effect having been the multiple fires. All these streams have had the least effect from roading and logging relative to other sub watersheds in the analysis area and have no record of fish stocking. Species The following subsections present brief synopses of the status and trends of anadromous fish populations in the Watershed Analysis Unit (WAU). Table 28 summarizes the current status of anadromous fish stocks in Salmon and Snow Creeks. Table 28. The status of fishes in Salmon and Snow Creeks Summarized from Published Reports (Summarized from Lichatowich,1993) Species Williams Nehlsen et al., Washinaton U.S. Fish and Endangered et al., 1993 Dept_ Fisheries, Wildlife Species Act 1975 et al., 1993 Service, 1991 Listing Status Sculpin spp. NNI NM NM NM NA brook NM NM NM NM NA lamprey Pacific NM NM NNl NM Candidate lamprey Threespined NNI NM NM NNl NA stickelback — - Coho Present NM Critical NM Candidate; rule due 1/97 Summer Present NM Critical NM Rule due 2/97 Chum Winter NN4 NM Depressed NM Listing not Steelhead warranted per 8`96 rule Cutthroat NM Special NNI NM Review due Concern I 1198 :N,Nl = not mentioned ,, A = not applicable 88 Table 29. Discovery Bay Stock Characterization (from WDF, et al. 1993) Stock Stoct Summer Chum N Coho M Steelhead N g Production Type Status Wild Critical Wild Critical Wild Depressed Coho According to the NMFS, coho are not currently listed under the ESA but are part of a vulnerable Evolutionally Significant Unit and may be a future candidate for listing. The Discovery Bay coho salmon stock is not unique in its spawning period, occurring from late October to early January (WDFW and WWTIT 1994). The redd site is chosen by the female. The preferred location is at the head of a riffle in small to medium sized gravel (Moyle 1982). Each female lays 1,000 to 5,000 eggs, depending on her size. The eggs hatch in eight to twelve weeks and the fry emerge fro the gravel four to ten weeks later, depending on the water temperatures (Moyle 1982). The fry school in the shallow stream margins, feeding on a wide variety of small invertebrates. As the fish grow, individuals will establish territories. This territory is characteristically quiet backwater or off channel areas in winter and main stem pools during summer. Young coho are voracious feeders, ingesting any organism that moves or drifts through its territory. A major pan of their diet is aquatic insect larvae and terrestrial insects; small fishes are taken when available (Moyle 1982). After the first year in fresh water, the amount of suitable habitat for the growing fish becomes limited, and the parr start to smolt in preparation to go to sea. At sea, coho are pelagic and prey mostly on other fishes (Moyle 1982), returning in two to five years to their native stream to spawn, die and start the cycle again. Escapement counts on Snow Creek from 1976 -1995 range from 3 to 830 (Johnson and Cooper 1995). Snow Creek escapement counts in 1988, 1991, and 1992 are the lowest in the data base, indicating a short- term severe decline (WDFW and WWTIT 1994). The mean smolt outmigration from 1978 to 1994 is 5,263 with a generally declining trend (Johnson and Cooper, 1995). Limited hatchery releases from the Dungeness hatchery in 1965, 1968, 1969, 1970, and 1971 have left an unknown genetic impact on the ixture of native and non- stock %�-ithin the drainages (WDFW and WWTIT 1994). This stock is likely a m native stocks. Salmon Creek coho are considered to be experiencing severe declines in production as indexed by Snow Creek escapements. Freshwater limiting factors include high flows and sedimentation primarily due to logging upstream (WDFW and WWTIT 1994). Summer low flows, decreased pool volume and decreased overwintering habitat also have a detrimental effect on coho survival. There has been a change in habitat composition, substrate composition, and distribution of large woody debris (WDFW and WWTIT 1994). With logging activity decreasing and regeneration of second growth well on its way, the related impacts are expected to decline (WDFW and WWTIT 1994). Grazing impacts on the coho exist in the lower watersheds. Bare and eroding conditions occur on 50 -75% of the streambanks even though there is a canopy at these sites (Nelson, et al. 1992). Although stock - specific information is available, it is assumed that Discovery Bay coho are primarily harvested in Canadian troll, net and sport fisheries and in Washington net and sport fisheries. In preterminal areas, the harvest rates on coho are determined by the needs for the other stocks of coho or other species. There is no terminal area fishery on Discovery Bay coho. Overall, harvest rates are also a limiting factor for Discovery Bay coho (WDFW and WWTIT 1994). Protection and recovery of coho salmon within their historical range is the subject of petition submitted by the Pacific Rivers Council to the National Marine Fisheries Service on October 20. 1993. A recommendation on this coho petition, determination of status and judgments on "species" and 89 evolutionary significant units (ESU's) determined that the stock should not be listed at this time but may be a future candidate. Chum Genetic studies show that the Discovery Bay summer chum salmon are distinguishable from other Puget - Sound chum salmon stocks (WDFW 1995). There is no record of non - native chum introductions, so Discovery Bay summer chum are considered to be a native stock (WDFW and WWTIT 1994). Discovery Bay chum spawn from early September to middle October (WDFW and WWTIT 1994). Chum salmon spend little time in fresh water. They usually occupy the lowermost sections of anadromous habitat, not extending beyond barriers that are easily passed by other salmon. The female digs a series of depressions to form the redd in ;ravel riffles, laying 2,400 to 4,000 eggs (Moyle 1982). Hatching takes place in January or February but the alevins remain in the gravel for two to three months longer, until the yolk sac is absorbed (Moyle 1982). They leave the gravel at 30 -35 mm and swim directly to the saltwater without feeding. Some populations of parr spend several months in the estuaries (Moyle 1982). The chum spend three to five years at sea before returning to their native stream to spawn, die and regenerate the cycle. Recorded native escapement estimates for Snow Creek and Salmon creeks combined, were generally between about 1000 and 1900 chum during 1968 through 1988, and have been less than about 500 chum adults since 1989 (T. Johnson, personal communication). The critical status is based on a short -term severe decline in escapement (WDFW and WWTIT 1994). While most of the spawner utilization is below West Uncas Road on both creeks, it does extend up to mile 1.5 on Salmon Creek and near the Andrews Creek confluence on Snow Creek; local residents report that chum salmon historically spawned in Andrews Creek (T. Johnson, personal communication). Limiting factors in fresh water for chum include high flows and very high sedimentation in the lower reaches, both of which have increased in recent years due to accelerated and extensive logging in each watershed (T. Johnson, personal communication). Habitat concerns for chum include changes in flow patterns that affect habitat composition, substrate composition and the amount and distribution of large wood in the stream (WDFW and WWTIT 1994). Discovery Bay summer chum are co- mingled in Puget Sound and Canadian commercial harvest areas with other returning species, including sockeye, pink, chinook and coho and other summer chum stocks. Incidental take in fisheries directed at other stocks accounts for most of the commercial harvest (WDFW and WWTIT 1994). Habitat degradation and commercial harvest are both contributing factors in the - declining chum stock and, although it has not been identified which is the more prevalent factor, both need attention. Steelhead Steelhead are the anadromous form of rainbow trout. Aside from their sea going habit and large size at spawning, there is little to distinguish them from the resident rainbow. Winter steelhead utilize Snow and Salmon creeks for juvenile rearing and adult spawning. Wild female winter steelhead in Snow Creek average 669 mm in length and 3,323 g in weight, with an average fecundity of 3,275 eggs per female. Like other salmonids, the steelhead female digs the redd in a riffle. There are an average of 1.2i redds /female in Snow Creek. The number of days from egg deposition to first emergence of winter steelhead fry fro the avel in Snow Creek averaged 62 days with 50 percent of emergence occurring by 71 days. Emergent winter steelhead fry are an average 30 m in length and 0.2 1 in weight. The fry initially live in waters close to shore and exhibit little aggressive behavior for several weeks. Unlike the salmon, the steelhead can spawn more than once in a lifetime, and it is not unusual for a fish to skip a year bevxeen spawning. Of the total number of adult female winter steelhead in Snow creek, 0.5 percent spent nearly one year in saltwater prior to returning to spawn, 76 percent spent nearly two years in saltwater, 9 percent spent nearly 3 years in saltwater and 14.5 percent returned to spawn more than one time (WDFW and WWTIT 1994). .11 The Discovery Bay winter steelhead is distinct, based on geographic isolation of the spawning population. The spawning period is early February to mid- iL1av, with 1977 -1992 returns ranging from 12 to 154 Adults. The mean smolt outmigration from 1978 -1994 was 1,394 %with a stable trend (Johnson and Cooper 1995). The status of the stock is depressed based on a short-term severe decline in run -size (WDFW and WWTIT 1994). Freshwater habitat has been impacted by forest management (WDFW and WWTIT 1994). Lower Salmon and Snow Creeks have experienced large deposits of fine sediment resulting in decreased spawning habitat quality, as well as increased runoff, flood frequency and downstream erosion. Cooper and Johnson (1992) examined trends in steelhead abundance in Washington and found an overall decline. They used sport harvest data to provide the best indication of long -term abundance trends, finding an overall recent decline beginning in 1985, with the 1990 -91 harvest being the lowest on record since 1962. Cooper and Johnson (1992) provides a comprehensive review and discussion of factors likely responsible for declines in abundance of steelhead. An assessment of genetic conservation management units for Washington steelhead is presented by Leider et al. (1994) and Leider et al. (1995). Cutthroat Naturally small sea -run cutthroat populations are present in Snow and Salmon Creeks. From 1975 through 1985, fewer than about 25 cutthroat adults were trapped annually in Snow Creek and fewer than about 80 cutthroat adults were trapped annually in Salmon Creek. Cutthroat smolt abundance in Snow Creek has remained low (fewer than approximately 50 fish), but relatively stable, from 1978 through 1996. In Salmon Creek, cutthroat smolt abundance showed a declining trend from 1978 through 19S5 (Johnson 1996). Studies by Michael (1983) suggested that resident and anadromous cutthroat populations in Salmon Creek are reproductively separate (Michael, 1989). Anadromous cutthroat trout in Snow and Salmon Creeks are late- entrv, entering freshwater in winter or spring. This timing in Puget Sound is usually associated with small, independent drainages (Michael 1989). Michael also suggests that regulation can maintain the carrying capacity for cutthroat smolt production by allowing the population to spawn once prior to harvest. Resident salmonids sympatric with the anadromous cutthroat may displace or replace anadromous stocks if the searun stock declines (Michael. 1989). Resident cutthroat trout spawning behavior is similar to other trout species. Each female, depending on her size, lays 400 to 4,000 eggs. Each fish may spawn up to five times in it's lifetime (Moyle 19S2). The eggs hatch in six to eight weeks, and the fry begin feeding about two weeks after hatching. Sea -run cutthroat rear in Snow and Salmon Creeks for one, two, or three years before smolting and migrating to Discovery Bay. Herring Discovery Bay herring is a major contributor to the Strait of Juan de Fuca population and is currently at critically low levels for unknown reasons. It is not known the extent to which watershed activity is affecting the marine habitat near the mouths of the creeks. Spa%vning for these marine fish is concentrated along the shore of the innermost half of the bay. The population has decreased six fold from 1979 to 1994 (WDFW, Baitfish Stock Status Report, 1995) Sturgeon Sturgeon occasionally visit the intertidal area of Salmon Creek. primarily, and are not a regular inhabitant of the watershed. J Attempts were made to establish Chinook, an effort that did not succeed in these small streams. Coho were stocked from 1953 -1973 (hence the mixed stock characterization in table Z 1). It is unknown if the native genetics was affected Qiven that the stream was likely fully seeded during those years (T. Johnson, personal communication). Regulatory Efforts The moratorium on pursuing the listing of species under the Endangered Species Act has been lifted. A species must have a Federal Register Notice (FRN) published as part of the pre - listing process. As of September 1996, the only species with a published FRN notice in Salmon and Snow Creeks, are coho and steelhead. The Washington State Department of Fish and Wildlife (WDFW) process to address fish populations at risk first identifies the stock status (as done in the SASSI report) and then develops a stock recovery plan (WDF et.al. 1993). The state has also maintained the waters of Snow and Salmon Creeks closed to fishing since 1977, except for Crocker Lake (see social - recreational section). In recent years the professional fisheries community has been involved in an ongoing effort to determine the extent of genetic similarity among stocks. The National Marine Fisheries Service has established Evolutionary Significant Units (ESU) to establish the shared genetic heritage among anadromous fish of varied geographic origin. The Washington State Department of Fish and Wildlife has established a system called Genetic Diversity Units (GDU). This classification system parallels the pre - listing information needs under the federal ESA. Within the GDU system the largest subdivision is a Major Ancestral Lineage (MAL), followed by a GDU, then a run and finally a stock as the most specific genetic subdivision. The table below summarizes the genetic classifications to which the anadromous salmonids of Snow and Salmon creeks belong. Table 31 anadromous Salmonids Genetic Classifications Current Restoration Efforts A local grass roots organization called Wild Olympic Salmon (WOS) has been working on Salmon Creek to benefit the summer chum stock. A log jam was made passable one mile above West Uncas Road for the fish to access more habitat. Stream stability work was also done just above West Uncas Road. The group also established remote site incubators in 1991 on the first tributary to the south above West Uncas Road under the guidance of the Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife. According to Tom Jay of WOS, present and future large woody debris recruitment potential is perhaps the greatest habitat need in lower Salmon Creek (Jay, personal communication, 1996). Jav also mentioned that the eel grass is not as abundant in the bay near the mouth as it once was. likely due to sedimentation. The Quilcene /Snow Jobs for the Environment (JFE) crew has been working on habitat restoration in Andrew's Creek and Snow Creek since 1995 (Ammeter, personal communication). In the summer of that year a new Andrew's Creek channel was excavated along Highway 101 to improve salmon migratory passage and reduce flooding on the highway. Meanders and woody debris were incorporated into the reconstruction as well as riparian planting. Plans during 1996 for JFE included excavating a channel and removal of Reed's canary grass upstream of Crocker Lake to facilitate fish passage in Andrew's Creek. During August and September 1996, a project 93 NMFS WDFW Coho Puget Sound ESU not completed Summer Chum Hood Canal ESU Sequim Bay /Discovery Bay GDU Winter Steelhead Puget Sound ESU South Sound GDU Searun Cutthroat In Progress In Progress Current Restoration Efforts A local grass roots organization called Wild Olympic Salmon (WOS) has been working on Salmon Creek to benefit the summer chum stock. A log jam was made passable one mile above West Uncas Road for the fish to access more habitat. Stream stability work was also done just above West Uncas Road. The group also established remote site incubators in 1991 on the first tributary to the south above West Uncas Road under the guidance of the Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife. According to Tom Jay of WOS, present and future large woody debris recruitment potential is perhaps the greatest habitat need in lower Salmon Creek (Jay, personal communication, 1996). Jav also mentioned that the eel grass is not as abundant in the bay near the mouth as it once was. likely due to sedimentation. The Quilcene /Snow Jobs for the Environment (JFE) crew has been working on habitat restoration in Andrew's Creek and Snow Creek since 1995 (Ammeter, personal communication). In the summer of that year a new Andrew's Creek channel was excavated along Highway 101 to improve salmon migratory passage and reduce flooding on the highway. Meanders and woody debris were incorporated into the reconstruction as well as riparian planting. Plans during 1996 for JFE included excavating a channel and removal of Reed's canary grass upstream of Crocker Lake to facilitate fish passage in Andrew's Creek. During August and September 1996, a project 93 was completed in lower Snow Creek. From the mouth to Highway 101, objectives included flooding and constriction abatement through channel and flood plain widening and deepening, removal of undesirable riparian vegetation , removal of old dredge spoils, protection of private property, and stabilization offish spawning habitat. From Highway 101 to the WDFW weir, objectives included flood damage abatement and fish habitat restoration that was accomplished by channel lowering, pool deepening, and inputs of large woody debris. The weir at the research station serves as a sediment trap and will be excavated regularly to minimize sedimentation effects in the reconstructed reach. According to Ammeter, the lack of structure in Snow and Andrews Creeks is a major problem, much like Salmon Creek. Gravel aggredation and sedimentation are also causes for concern, suggesting a need to make slope failure prevention a high priority. On National Forest land a culvert survey has identified those road crossings proving to be barriers. One passage problem, the 2850 Road crossing of Snow Creek, has been partially addressed with log weirs to serve as a Fish ladder. Culvert baffles are still needed at the site. REFERENCES Ammeter, T. 1996. Jobs For the Environment crew leader for Snow Creek. Personal communication. Bernthal, C and P.L. Fau Ids. In press. Point No Point Treaty Council, Centennial Clean Water Grant. Ambient Monitoring Project Report. Point No Point Treaty Council. Project Report 95 -, Kingston, WA. IN Gately, G. March 1995. Discovery Bay Watershed Water Quality Assessment (Draft version). Jefferson County Conservation District for Discovery Bay Watershed Management Committee. 80= pp. Brubaker, L. Monthly precipitation for periods back to the 1870's for Port Angeles and Port Townsend. University of Washington. Seattle, Washington. IN Jamestown S'Klallam Tribe, Coordinating entity for the Regional Planning Group. June 30, 1994. The DQ Plan, The -° Dungeness- Quilcene Water Resources Management Plan. A Plan submitted to the Department of Ecology under The Chelan Agreement. Cederholm, C. 1., L. M. Reid, and E. O. Salo. 1981. - Cumulative effects of logging road sediment on salmonid populations in the Clearwater River, Jefferson County, Washington. Pages 38 -74 in Proceedings, conference on salmon spawning ;ravel: a renewable resource in the Pacific Northwest? Washington State University, Water Research Center Report 39, Pullman. Coffin, Bengt A. and R. Dennis Harr. 1992. Effects of Forest Cover Volume on Water Delivery to Soil During Rain -On -Snow Field Study. Final Report for Project SH -1 (Rain -On -Snow Field Study) (originally Project 18). Submitted to Soil. Hydrology, and Mass Wasting Steering Committee. 1 18 pp. Cooper, R. & T.H. Johnson. 1992. Trends in steelhead abundance in Washington and along the Pacific Coast of North America. Washington Department of Wildlife. Fisheries Management Division. Report 92 -5. 57p. Cupp, C.E. 1989. Valley Segment Type Classification for Forested Lands of Washington. wTFW- ANI -89 -001 (Timber Fish and Wildlife Ambient �itonitoring Program) Discovery Bay Watershed Management Committee. March 1995. Discovery Bay Watershed Management Plan, A community -Based Resource Plan_ 93 Gately, G. Draft March 1995. Discovery Bay Watershed Water Quality Assessment. Jefferson County Conservation District for Discovery Bay Watershed Management Committee. Grimstad, P. and R. Carson. 1981. Geology and groundwater resources of Eastern Jefferson County, Washington. Waster Supply Bulletin No. 54. Washington State Department of Ecology. Olympia, WA. Haushild, W.L., and E.E. LaFrance. 1978. Low -flow characteristics of streams on the Olympic Peninsula, Washington. 25 pp. IN USDA Forest Service, USDI Geological Survey, Fish and Wildlife Service, Bureau of Indian Affairs, Quinault Indian Nation Business Council, Washington State Department of Natural Resources, and Rayonier. 1996. Boulder and Cook Watershed Analysis. Quinault, Washington. 139 + pp. Henderson, J.A., D.H. Peter, R.D. Lesher, D.C. Shaw. 1989. Forested plant associations of the Olympic National Forest. USDA Forest Service, Technical Paper 001 -88. 503 pp. Jamestown S'Klallam Tribe. Coordinating entity for the Regional Planning Group. June 30, 1994. The Dungeness - Quilcene water resources management plan ( "DQ Plan). A plan submitted to the Department of Ecology under The Chelan Agreement. Jay, T. 1996. Wild Olympic Salmon project coordinator for Salmon Creek. Personal communication. Johnson, T. H. 1996. Anadromous Game Fish Investigations (Snow Creek Research Station), Washington State Department of Fish and Wildlife. Personal communication_ Johnson. T.H. and R. Cooper. 1995. Anadromous Game Fish Research and Planning. Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife. Annual Report AF95 -03. 33p. Jones, 1. A.. and G. E. Grant. April 1996. Peak flow responses to clearcutting and roads in small and large basins, western Cascades. Oregon. Water Resources Research. Volume 32. Number 4. ISSN 0043 -1397. pp. 959 -974. Jones and Stokes Assoc. 1991. Watershed Characteristics and Condition Inventory, Pysht River and Snow Creek Watersheds. Dept. of Natural Resources. State of Washington. TFW- AM10 -91- 001. Leider, S.A., P.L. Hulett, and T.H. Johnson. 1994. Preliminary assessment of genetic conservation management units for Washington steelhead: Implications for WDFW's draft steelhead management plan and the federal ESA_ Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife. Fish management Program. Report 94 -15. Olympia, WA. 42pp. Leider, S.A., S.R. Phelps, and P.L Hulett_ 1995. Genetic analysis of Washington steelhead: Implications for revision of Genetic Conservation :Management Units. March 1995 Progress Report. Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife, Fish Management Program. Olympia, WA. 21 co. Lichatowich, J. 1993. The status of Pacific Salmon Stocks in the Quilcene Ranger District. Report to USDA Forest Service, Olympic National Forest. Quilcene Ranger District. Quilcene, WA, Lisle, T.E. 1981. The Recovery of Aggraded Stream Channels at Gauging Stations in Northern California and Southern Oregon. Erosion and Sediment Transport in Pacific Rim Steep Lands. [AHS Publication 132. pp 188 -211. Washington Forest Practices Board_ 1993. Standard 95 Methodologv for Conductina Watershed Analysis Version 2.1. Section C - Hydrology Change, C- through C -54. McCreary, F.R. 1975. Soil Survey of Jefferson County Area, Washington. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service. MacDonald. L.M., A.W. Smart, and R.C. Wissmar. 1991. Monitoring guidelines to evaluate the effects of forestry activities on streams in the Pacific Northwest and Alaska. Report EPA /9l0/9- 91 -001. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Seattle, WA. 166 pp. MacPhail, J.D. 1967. Distribution of freshwater fishes in wester Washinaton. Northwest Science 41:7 1 -1 1. Michael, Jr., J.H. 1989. Life History of Anadromous Coastal Cutthroat Trout in Snow and Salmon Creeks. Jefferson County, Washington, with Implications for Management. Calif. Fish and Game 75 (4): 188 -203. Montgomery, D.R. and J.M. Buffington, 1992. Channel Classification, Prediction of Channel Response, and Assessment of Channel Condition. TFW -SH 1093 -002. Moyle, P.B., J.J. Cech. 1982. Fishes: An Introduction to Ichthyology. Prentice -Hall, Inc, Englewood Cliffs. NJ. 593pp. Nehlsen, W., J.E. Williams, and J.A. Lichatowich. 1991. Pacific Salmon at the Crossroads: Stocks at Risk from California, Oregon, Idaho, and Washington. Fisheries 16:2 4 -21. Nelson. T.. L. Adkins. N1. Hoover, J. Heller, B. McIntosh, and T. Granger. November 1992. The Discovery Bay Watershed. Norwood, Sandy. 1992. Environmental Review Coordinator. Department of Natural Resources, Washinaton Natural Heritage Program. Olympia, Washington. Personal correspondence. IN Puget Sound Cooperative River Basin Team. November 1992. The Discovery Bay Watershed. Lacey, Washington. 200 + pp. Orsborn, 1. F. and S. C. Ralph. November, 1994. An aquatic resource assessment of the Dungeness River system: Phase II - physical channel analysis, hydrology and hydraulics and . Phase III - fisheries habitat survey. The Jamestown S'Klallam Tribe and Quilcene Ranger District, Olympic National Forest. Plotnifoff, Roberta 1992. Washinaton State Department of Ecology. Olympia, Washington. Personnel communication. IN Puget Sound Cooperative River Basin Team. November 1992. The Discovery Bay Watershed. Lacey, Washington. 200 + pp. Pro Salmon Petition to NMFS, 1994 Ricker, 1970 Rubida, P. 1989. Ambient Water Quality Report. Port Townsend, Washington. Jefferson County Planning and Building Department. IN Gately, G. March 1995. Discovery Bay Watershed Water Quality Assessment (Draft version). Jefferson County Conservation District for Discovery Bay Watershed Management Committee. 80+ pp. Rowse, M. L., C. Weller, and L. Lestelle. In press. Evaluation of natural stock improvement measures for Hood Canal coho salmon. Fiscal Year 1993/1994 report. PNPTC Technical Report M. TR 95 -. Kingston, WA. IN Gately, G. March 1995. Discovery Bay Watershed Water Quality Assessment (Draft version). Jefferson County Conservation District for Discovery Bay Watershed Nlanagement Committee. 80+ pp. Shaw, S.C. and D.H Johnson. 1995. Slope Morphology Model Derived from Digital Elevation Data. Proceedings, 1995 NW ARC /INFO Users Conference. Coeur d'Alene, Idaho, Oct. 23 -25, 1995. Swanson, R.H. and G.R. Hillman. 1977. Predicted increased water yield after clearcutting in - west central Alberta. Northern Forest Research Centre. Edmonton. Alberta. Report NOR - x - 198. 40 pp. IN Washington Forest Practices Board. 1995. Board Manual: Standard Methodology for Conducting Watershed Analysis. 200 ++ pp. USDA Forest Service. 1969. Olympic National Forest. 1969. Soil Resource Management Survey Report. USDA Forest Service. 1995. Dungeness Watershed analysis. USDA Forest Service. 1996. Unpublished shocking Data collected by Michael Donald, Quilcene Ranger District, Olympic National Forest. USD1 Geological Survey Water Resources Division. 1955. Monthly and yearly summaries of hydrographic data in the State of Washington to September, 1953. Water - Supply Bulletin No. 6 Tacoma. Washington. 836 pp. USDI Geological Survey Water Resources Division. 1964. Miscellaneous stream -flow measurements in the State of Washington IS90 to January, 1961. Water - Supply Bulletin No. 23. Tacoma, Washington. 292 pp. Washington Forest Practices Board. November, 1994. Board manual: Standard methodology for conducting watershed analysis. Under Chapter 222 -22 WAC. Washington State Department of Ecology. May 199.3_ Water Quality in Washington State (Section 303(d) of the Federal Clean Water Act). Washington State Department of Ecology. September 1995. 1994 Washington State Water Quality Assessment (305 (b)J Report Companion Document - Data and References. Ecology Publication WQ- 95 -65b. Washington State Department of Ecology. 1996. Impaired and threatened waterbodies requiring additional pollution controls. Decision ivlatrix for proposed 1996 Section 303(d) list. ECY# WQ- R-95-84. Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife (WDFW) and Western Washington Treaty Indian Tribes (W\47IT). 1994. Appendix one. Puget Sound Stocks. Hood Canal and Straight of Juan de Fuca Volume of 1992 Washington State Salmon and Steelhead Stock Inventory. 42-1 pp. Washington State Department of Fish and Wildlife. 1995. Electronic files containing climate data. Snow Creek Research Station. Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife. 1995. Genetic Diversity Units and Major Ancestral Lineages of Salmonid Fishes in Washington. C.Busark and J.B. Shaklee. editors. Fish Management Program, Resource Assessment Division. Technical Report No. RAD 95 -02. 97 Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife and North Puget Sound Treaty Tribes. 1995. Baitfish Stocks Status Report. Fish Management Program.. Marine Resources Division. Washington State Department of Health. 1988. Water Quality Study of Discovery Bay. Olympia, Washington: Washington Department of Health. IN Nelson, et al. 1992. The Discovery Bay Watershed. 180+ pp. Washington State Department of Health. 1992. Preliminary ambient monitoring marine water quality data of Discovery Bay. Olympia, Washington. IN Nelson, et al. 1992. The Discovery Bay Watershed. 180 +pp• Washington State Department of Natural Resources. 1996. Geographic Information System DNR precipitation zones coverage. Available from DNR Information Technology Division. Olympia, WA. Williams. J.R. and H.E. Pearson, and J.D. Wilson. 1985. Streamflow statistics and drainage -basin characteristics for the Puget Sound Region, Washington. Volume 1: Western and Southern Puget Sound. USDI Geological Survey Open -file report 84- 144 -A. Tacoma, Washington. 330 pp. Wolman, M.G. and J.P. Miller. 1960. Magnitude and Frequency of Forces in Geomorphic Processes. Journal of Geology. 68(l): 54 -74. IN Washington Forest Practices Board. 1993. Standard iviethodologv for Conducting Watershed Analysis Version 2.1. Section C - Hydrology Change, C- through C -54. 98 Social Systems Pre - European Settlement The size of the Native population of the watershed was relatively small. Artifacts from the time period just prior to European exploration represent a maritime- oriented culture. (Righter 1978 in USDA, 1994) While there is no evidence of European or Asian contact with the native population in the watershed prior to Vancouver's visit in 1792, there was contact with the tribes and influence along the NW coast by Spanish, Russian, British, and Americans (USDA, 1994) There is even evidence that there was very early contact with Asians. Prior to 1875, no less than 75 Asian craft had been found adrift or ashore along the west coast. The first known contact of Northwest Coast Indians with Asian cultures was by the Chinese explorer Hwui Shan, about the fifth century a.d. (Campbell 1979 in Henderson et al. 1989) Post - European Settlement The first visit by Spanish explorers was in 1775 when Manuel Quimper sailed into the Straits, first described by the Greek sailor Juan de Fuca in 1592 who claimed to have seen the western end of the fabled NW passage. The first extensive European exploration began with Captain George Vancouver who explored, mapped, and named Hood's Canal and Puget's Sound, as well as a number of other landmarks. He anchored his ship the Discovery, not far from the mouth of Salmon creek in what is now Discovery Bay. George Vancouver made a short excursion to the head of Discovery Bay after anchoring his ship. As he approached the mouth of Salmon creek, he found the bay ...... terminated in a muddy flat across its head, about a quarter of a mile from the shore. The water, which was seven fathoms deep close to the flat, Gradually deepened to 10, 20, and 30 fathoms, good holding ground. On this bank were found some small indifferent oysters. The shores beyond it are low and thickly wooded, and through them there appeared to run a very considerable stream of water, with several smaller ones. emptying themselves into the harbour. The back country had the appearance of a swampy fen for a considerable distance. We landed not far from the largest rivulet, where we found a deserted village capable of containing an hundred inhabitants. The houses were built after the Nootka fashion, but did not seem to have been lately the residence of the Indians. -(Vancouver, 1792) "The habitations had now fallen into decay; their inside, as well as a small surrounding space that appeared to have been formerly occupied, were over -run with weeds; amongst which were found several human sculls, and other bones, promiscuously scattered about. "(Vancotver, 1792) The Graveyard at the head of Discovery Bay was originally an Indian burial Ground. Indians didn't always bury their dead. Sometimes they were wrapped in cattail mats and placed upright in their canoes, and babies were often wrapped and hung in a tree. At times when a new grave is dug, the Around vields bones of Indians.(lefferson County Historical Society, 1966) Hundreds of Indians in the northwest were impacted when ships brought smallpox from San Francisco in 1859. Of 100 people at the time in Port Discovery, only two people did not get the disease. However, most whites survived (Jefferson County Historical Society, 1966). Settlement and early economy of the area began around 1858 and was centered around the timber resources, lamely for export to the San Francisco Bay area. The original timber was harvested or burned by wildfire between 1880 and 1925. About 116 of the forest was harvested again in the 40 years preceding the 1980's, but harvesting has accelerated greatly since the early I980's. (Jamestown S'Klallam Tribe 1994) 99 Near the head of the bay, the Discovery Bay mill was established in I SSS. It rivaled the other great mills in Puget Sound and in I S85 it shipped 28 million feet of lumber. Sailing ships from all over the world came to take on supplies. A small village surrounded the mill and provided facilities for more than 300 people. The ravine adjacent to the mill was called "Chinaman's Gulch" for its role in hiding Chinese who illegally entered the country from across the straits to work (Jefferson County Historical Society. 1966). The first school built at Port Discovery was moved to Coopersville, a mile up Snow Creek where a post office and store were also located. Farmers gradually moved up the valley, clearing and farming the land (Jefferson County Historical Society, 1966). Logging Pope & Talbot established Camp Talbot two miles up Snow Creek, and proceeded to log Skidder hill, railroading the logs to Fairmount. Between 1915 and 1925, the Snow Creek Logging Company worked the Snow Creek area. Spurs extended up Howe Creek near Cedar Flats; up Trapper Creek; along Jimmy come Lately Creek and Salmon Creek; and up the Little Quilcene River. Tracks used in these operations were lightweight and were laid down with little regard for ballast or roadbed construction. When the area around a spur was logged, the tracks were pulled up and relayed in another area. In 1925, a slash fire got out of control and burned a large area south to the Quilcene River, which ended the Snow Creek Logging Company's activities in this area. Most Snow Creek Logging railroad grades have been converted to roads. (McCotmic 1978) The most recent fires occurring in Snow Creek were the Discovery Bay fire of 1924 (Snow Creek No. 1) of 5000 acres and the Snow Creek No 2 fire in 1925 that burned 4,000 acres. These were apparently logging caused fires. Mining One mining shaft for the Telesite 43 mining claim can be found along Salmon Creek at the junction of the Forest Service 2850 road. This was apparently constructed after 1950. There were about 20 mining claims totaling approximately 180 acres in sections 29,30,21, and 32, T. 29 N., R. 2 W. These were held or claimed by the Fissure Products Corporation as early as 1951. It was determined that the land within the claims was essentially nonmineral in character. and that a valuable deposit of mineral has not been demonstrated to exist within the claims. Transportation In 1889, the railroad was started from Port Townsend to Lake Hooker (Lake Leland) which was to eventually link Port Townsend with Portland, Oregon and points east. The Port Townsend and Southern was eventually completed to Quilcene before going bust in 1893 (Jefferson County Historical Society, 1966). It passed through the lower Snow Creek valley. There is still a large old barn that was originally the railroad roundhouse that is located along lower Snow Creek. - Water Use In Snow Creek at the forest boundary are the remnants of the former diversion for the Port Townsend municipal water supply that was in use from 1906 until the Big Quilcene diversion replaced it in 1927. . Water was diverted into a 12 inch pipeline and a gravity fed system that took the water to City Lake which is still in use today_ The City owns property bordering Snow Creek adjacent to the old diversion, which dates back to their water use. The City does not now hold a water right on Snow Creek and there are no plans for future municipal water use. HE Communities and Occupation There is commercial use within the watershed at the point that Snow and Salmon Creeks empty into Discovery Bay. There are several businesses along U.S. 101 at this point. Following south along U.S. 101, are scattered rural residences, some in association with agricultural uses. Values and Uses Terrestrial Timber Harvest The majority of the watersheds are forest land. Most of this has been logged within this century and some has been logged a second time this century. Special Forest Products There are many products that can come from forest land. Many people obtain permits in order to pick vegetation for floral use, cut firewood, and gather mushrooms. There have been problems with products being removed without permission from the land owners. Aa riculture There are several small farms in the lower portion of the watershed. These for the most part raise livestock on pasture land. Hay is another crop that is raised. Transportation Roads One of the major highway transportation routes of the Olympic Peninsula, U.S. Highway 101, travels through the lower watershed from north to south and crosses Snow and Salmon creeks just above their mouths at Discovery Bay. The county, private land owners, and Forest Service have also accessed most of the watershed with logging roads_ Airport There is a small private grass airport runway in the Salmon Creek drainage above Discovery Bay. Water Pipeline The water pipeline for the City of Port Townsend passes through the watershed. This pipeline originates at a diversion on the Big Quilcene River and empties into City Lake, a water storage reservoir, near Eaglemount_ This pipeline carries most of the water used by the City and it's customers. Powerlines High Voltage powerlines cross the northern part ofthe watershed. There is a substation north of the ;unction of highways U.S. 101 and U.S. 104. Radio Relay There is a radio relay site on Blyn mountain. This is used by the Washington State Patrol. U.S. Forest Service, telephone companies and others. 101 Wildlife Wildlife of various types have found habitat within the watershed. litany species can be found within riparian zones along the streams, rivers, lakes, and wetlands. Deer have become very common in open areas following timber harvest. Bear and bobcat have also been seen along with a variety of birds which live and forage in the area. Hunting and Trapping Outdoor enthusiasts enjoy both observing and hunting wildlife. Hunters have favorite spots to which they return. Deer are prevalent, especially near new forest plantations. Aquatic Agriculture Most of the water used for both commercial and small farms comes from single use wells. Small diversions were used for irrigation (USDI Geological Survey. 1955) Fish Native and anadromous fish use the water as a medium to live. They depend on the water to supply habitat, feed, travel ways, and areas for spawning. Snow Creek supports a State of Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife (WI)MI fish trap site. There is also a WDFW research station near by on Salmon Creek. This was established in 1976 near river mile 1.0 in order to obtain life history information and conduct other studies on fish in the stream_ All fish, juvenile and adults, are trapped. They are allowed to proceed either up or down stream after the necessary information is taken. Social Recreational Use Local residents and visitors commonly use the area for recreation. Crocker Lake is a very popular fishing site within the County. The Forest Service has an audio cassette tour on the National Forest. Visitors can check out a tape and follow a mapped route through the National Forest with taped discussion of the history and forestry management techniques they see along the way. A very popular recreational use is the cutting of Christmas trees from the wild. Hunters continually roam the watershed during various hunting seasons in search of game. Deer, bear, and grouse are common game animals. Fishing is common especially in Crocker lake. Crocker has a public boat ramp and is stocked annually with hatchery trout. The streams are not fished. In order to facilitate research on Snow and Salmon creeks by the WDFW the stream has been closed to angling since 1977. Desired Products Among major desired products from this watershed are clean water, timber resources. habitat for a variety of wildlife, areas for agriculture, access for transportation routes, and areas for rural residences and businesses. 102 References: Henderson, J.A., D. H. Peter, R.D. Lesher and D.C. Shaw. 1959. Forested plant associations of the Olympic National Forest. USDA Forest Service R6 -Ecol- 001 -SS. Pacific Northwest Region, Portland, Or. 502 pp. Jefferson County Historical Society, 1966, With Pride in Heritage, History of Jefferson County, Port, Townsend WA. McCormic, Jack & Associates, inc., March 1975, Cultural Resource Overview of the Olympic National Forest, Washington, for USDA Forest Service Region 6, Portland OR, Contract No 006709N, USDA. 1994. Olympic National Forest. Big Quilcene Watershed Analysis. USDI Geological Survey. Water Resources Division. 1955. Monthly and yearly summaries of hydrographic data in the State of Washington to September, 1953. Water Supply Bulletin No. 6, Tacoma, Washington. 292 pp. Vancouver, G. 1792, Original Journal of Vancouver's Discovery of Puget Sound 103 TRENDS Landscape Patterns Wildfires were the primary process affecting vegetation from at least 1308 to 1925. The trend in wildfires has been a landscape -scale fire approximately every 200 years. The most recent wildfire on this scale, however, occurred 295 years ago in 1701. Therefore, the eastern peninsula may be "due" for another similar fire. Such a fire can be expected if the following conditions occur: 1) an ignition source (natural or manmade), and 2) summer precipitation less than 2 ", and 3) east to west winds. Experts (Modie 1994) believe that such a fire may be impossible to suppress. Of course, climatic patterns and trends are not constant, and since the above 3 conditions are all related to climatic conditions, there is a possibility that the above 3 conditions will not occur simultaneously. Even though the analysis area did not have an episodic fire at the 200 year interval, it has nevertheless completely burned since the 1701 fire in several smaller fires. Much of the lower part of the watershed burned in the 1860's and then most of the watershed, including the upper watershed, again burned in the 1920's. These fires were associated with clearing or logging activities. The recurrent nature of fire in these watersheds produced a cyclical vegetative condition (page 23). EIS conditions stretched across the landscape every 200 years for a 15 -20 year period. Then the forest went through CES and URS conditions for about 150 years. Finally, DUS, BDS, NDS, FPS, and OGS were likely prevalent during the last couple of decades before the next fire started the cycle over again. Throughout the cycle, much of the landscape was in the same habitat condition, with variations where fuels had burned hotter or riparian areas were skipped. For this reason, wildlife populations were no doubt cyclical as well, with those species that could do well in the available habitat expanding their populations greatly until the forest evolved past their requirements. Then these populations would have declined to levels that could utilize the small patches of suitable habitat that might be available. By the time populations declined, most species would have expanded into other drainages where conditions might be better. Actual data from which to draw long -term population trend conclusions is not available for most analysis species in this assessment because few species have been studied for long enough to provide substantive information. Potential population trends for the analysis species were discussed in as much detail as possible in the wildlife portion of the landscape module (Page 28 -53). Table 9 (Page 29) provides a quick glimpse at the status and possible population trends for all analysis species and groups. Traditionally in the Snow /Salmon, a landscape -scale disturbance (fire) has been followed by a long recovery period. The trend in timber harvest activity across the watershed is best described as a .'chronic" disturbance: small disturbances, distributed across the watershed, occur at regular intervals with very little or no recovery time. Timber harvesting, and road building to access timber, has been a constant trend in the watershed since 1925. The harvest trend has been one of individually planned, clearcut units dispersed across the watershed, and has not included a watershed or regional plan. As a result, mid and late -sera[ forest has been fragmented by young plantations. The road building associated with harvest may have greater impacts on aquatic systems than the removal of vegetation. Timber harvest has not reduced or increased any habitat type beyond what would have occurred naturally at some point in the wildfire cycle, though patterns may be arranged differently than under a Fire regime. Recent timber harvest has resulted in a scattering of EIS on National Forest land in the two watersheds. On State and private lands, most of what would naturally be CES and URS forest has been harvested in the last 20 years, increasing the amount of EIS forest substantially. Species that rely on EIS forest have much more habitat than would exist without human management, and populations are likely 104 much greater than would have occurred in any but the earliest two decades of the fire cycle. The quality of EIS forest is thought to be lower than the historic range of natural variability. The amount of coarse woody debris found in young plantations after timber harvest is lower than what likely remained after a fire, reducing the suitability of the habitat for some species. However, in the Olympic rainshadow, the overall difference between coarse woody debris in harvest units and burned over areas is less than elsewhere on the peninsula due to the historic fire return and intensity. More red alder is likely to occur in young stands now than in the past after the episodic fires. At those times. alder was likely found mostly in riparian zones. Fire would kill timber and consume duff but would not expose much fresh mineral soil. Once timber harvest began, when the forests were removed, mineral soil was exposed to a much larger extent. Ideal conditions for alder consist of open areas with exposed mineral soil. As alder moved into areas of exposed soil where roads were built and timber harvest completed, there was increased seed source. Currently, when stands are harvested, treatment is generally needed to maintain the coniferous component .of the stand. However, the deciduous habitat provided by pockets of upland alder is desirable to some wildlife species, which are probably more common today than historically in the analysis area. CES and URS forest, which would be dominant across the landscape under the wildfire regime, is extensive on National Forest lands. It has been fragmented by young plantations in some areas, but still covers large tracts like it would naturally. In the lower portions of the National Forest, areas have been commercially thinned to encourage stands to develop late - seral characteristics more rapidly. This type of management has improved the suitability of the otherwise dense forest for many species. CES and URS forests that originated from harvest or that have been commercially thinned probably have fewer snags and down logs than would be present in fire - managed stands. Except for species dependent on coarse woody debris, mid -sera) species may not have been substantially affected by timber management practices. Most are habitat generalists that can do well within the fragmented landscape. Also, the commercial thinning of some areas improved the quality of mid -sera) forest for many species. - Late- successional forest species have suffered the greatest habitat loss due to management. Timber harvest typically focuses on the timber of greatest value, which usually means the oldest and largest trees. Therefore, harvest has been concentrated in those areas that are providing late - successional forest habitat and those that are closest to developing those habitat traits. At this point in the fire cycle, not much DUS, BDS, NDS, FPS, and OGS forest would occur naturally. Since some of the riparian areas and concavities that did not burn in the last fires have been harvested, the amount of late - seral forest has been reduced. Much of what is left is adjacent to young stands, not the 70 year old forest that would be natural. This fragmentation makes a portion of the late -seral habitat unsuitable for many interior forest species. Therefore, less habitat is available for late -sera) dependent wildlife than would exist naturally at this point in the wildfire cycle. As a result, populations of these species are likely lower than they would have been without timber harvest. Species dependent on snags and/or down wood also have been impacted by the switch from fire to management as the driving force in habitat development. There is less coarse woody debris. both snags and down logs, left in stands after timber harvest than after fire, even given the intensity of fires in the analysis area. For wildlife, this means fewer snags and down logs to provide nesting, foraging, and resting sites for many species. Without management, this reduction in habitat will continue until the stand begins providing coarse wood naturally. In the case of clearcut areas, this maybe 80 -100 years. For species that select for coarse woody habitat in early -seral forest, such as bluebirds, traditional management techniques will not provide the type of habitat that was available naturally_ On the National Forest, the trend in harvest activities has decreased significantly since 1990. This is due primarily to restrictions imposed by the Endangered Species Act and the Northwest Forest Plan Record of Decision. National Forest previously available for harvest has been designated as either Late - Successional Reserve or Adaptive Management Area. The Northwest Plan has designated 2.039 acres. or 26 percent of the previously available National Forest in the watershed as a Late Successional Reserve (LSR), and 5.685 105 acres, or 74 percent of the previously available National Forest as Adaptive Management Area (AMA). Objectives of the AMA include the development and testing of innovative approaches at the stand and landscape level for integration of ecological and economic goals, including restoration of structural complexity to simplified forests and streams and development of more diverse managed forests. Timber harvest will most likely be thinnings instead of clearcuts, which will move the balance back toward highly useable mid -sera) forest. Coarse woody debris retention will be an issue of concern in planning harvests. Wildlife values are the primary emphasis within the LSR. LSR's are managed to protect and enhance conditions of late - successional and old- growth ecosystems. Limited stand management is permitted, but the philosophy of the LSR is to create and enhance a network of old - growth forest ecosystems. On State and private lands, somewhat more care may be given to providing a diversity of habitat types than has been in the last few decades, but the focus will remain on providing a timber commodity. Therefore, clearcutting and seed tree harvests will probably continue and much of the landscape will remain in early and early- mid -sera) forest. This will result in continuation of elevated populations of early -seral dependent species on these lands. Whatever vegetative conditions exist at a aiven time, there will always be wildlife species that can thrive in the available habitat and others that will do poorly or have to move to another area. Fortunately, habitat conditions frequently vary from drainage to drainage, so if a species cannot do well in one area, there may be another location where that species is doing very well. This is what enables species populations to remain viable despite the drastic changes in habitat that both nature and man can cause. It is also what allows such a wide diversity of species to co -exist on a landscape level. The trend in invasive non - native plants has not been studied in the entire watershed. However, a study by the Olympic National Park indicates that invasive non - native plant species pose a threat to native vegetation in the Olympic National Park (different species pose varying levels of threats to different areas within the Park). Because the Olympic National Park is probably more protected than any area within the two watersheds, it can be assumed that areas within Snow and Salmon Creek watersheds have experienced, or are experiencing, a greater threat from invasive non - native plant species. The trend of non - native plant invasion across the entire watershed can be assumed to be increasing, and will continue to increase in the future. Aquatic Trends Riparian habitat has evolved from fire dominated conditions, which left patches of green trees in cooler areas to snags with resulting coarse woody debris in the streams as trees fell in the river. For many years, state of the art management, meant cleaning debris out of streams. This was to prevent the debris from blowing out in storms, and causing damage to road crossings and lower areas of the streams. Current understanding has improved as to the importance of the coarse woody debris in the streams, and the shading of streams. Management techniques now include leaving riparian buffers, and developing more large coniferous trees along the stream to provide shade and a continual supply of coarse woody debris. This is a significant change in trends for riparian management and likely stream health in the future. Historically, there has always been an important hardwood component in the riparian vegetation. Even when long periods existed between fires, which allowed late- successional coniferous stands to encroach on the streams. Flooding by streams would create gaps that would allow hardwoods to continue to survive. Thus, there was permanent seed source in riparian areas. Often large Douglas -fir survived fires either scattered or in pockets in the riparian areas. Where they did not, succession proceeded from alder to hemlock and cedar where floods did not continually create new alder habitat. Riparian areas were very diverse. Shortly after fires, the riparian areas contained the few late - successional refugia that existed. Also, late in succession the riparian areas contained the few hardwood refugia that existed. They had the biggest structures and greatest species diversity. It was not likely that pure Douglas -fir stands would develop (Peter, 1996, Personal Communication): 106 Resident trout distribution and migration potential is presently less than historic conditions. With the advent of a road system. culverts have restricted resident cutthroat upstream migration during spawning season, in the upper watershed and in some cases excluded populations by preventing recolonization from downstream after forceful flows. In Salmon Creek, the uppermost mile of fish habitat is isolated from upstream passage due to Forest Service road 2850. Fish population in approximately one mile of habitat is isolated from upstream fish passage. In Snow Creek there are populations within the uppermost six miles of stream habitat that is isolated from upstream migration. There is approximately one half mile where the habitat utilization has been eliminated because of culvert barriers. There are 5 culvert barriers on Snow Creek and its tributaries, three of which define the upper extent of utilized fish habitat. Three culvert barriers exist on Salmon Creek within fish habitat (USDA. 1993 -4. unpublished data). Culverts at lower elevations on private land should also be reviewed, but there is value in maintaining migration capability within the upper watershed for those fish with a relatively short migration. The overall abundance of salmonids in Salmon and Snow creeks has decreased dramatically from historic conditions. Salmon Creek likely had a similar relative abundance as today with chum being the most abundant, followed by cutthroat, coho, and steelhead, respectively. Snow Creek was likely dominated by Chum, followed by coho with steelhead and cutthroat on a par as least abundant. By comparison, the relative abundance in Snow Creek in decreasing order is: coho, steelhead, chum, cutthroat (Johnson, Personal Communication). Social Patterns The use of the watershed and demand for products is very strong and has been increasing since European settlement. The harvesting of timber, for the second time in a century, especially off the National Forest demonstrates that there is need that the watershed is supplying. The residential, transportation, and recreational uses have all been increasing. While this has been occurring, there has also developed a public environmental awareness trend. This is demonstrated by the development of the NW Plan that affects all of the National Forest. This came about from the public pressure on elected officials to change management objectives for ecosystem management. The NW Plan provides more emphasis on aquatic conservation and planning in development of habitat. A portion of the watershed is designated to manage towards old - growth conditions. Portions are designated to protect and enhance the aquatic habitat resources, and portions are to provide economic commodities. There is also an emphasis on restoration of various types of habitat and aquatic conditions. This plan indicates a significant trend in change in public attitude and the objectives for managing public lands. References Johnson, T., 1996. Personal Communication. Research Biologist, Snow Creek Research Station. Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife. Modie. N. 1994. Conditions are converging for cataclysmic forest fire. Seattle Post- lntelligencer, Seattle, WA. Peter, D., 1996. Personal Communication. Ecologist, Olympic National Forest. USDA. Quilcene Ranger District, Olympic National Forest. 1993 -4 culvert surveys, unpublished data. 107 Interpretation Interrelationships Hydrologic conditions in the watersheds have remained relatively unchanged during the entire Holocene Period (the last 10,000 years). Low precipitation results from the rainshadow influence of the Olympic mountains. The maritime winds moderate temperatures. However, the timing and amount of water available for groundwater recharge and surface runoff changed because of altered climate, vegetative cover, and human activities. Modest variations to the overall wet, moderate climate took place throughout the Holocene. In dryer and warmer periods (such as the Hypsithermal Period of 10,000 to 4,000 years ago) less water was available for surface -water runoff and ground -water recharge. Slightly dryer periods probably somewhat reduced streamflows and yielded slightly more intermittent stream reaches. During colder periods (such as the Little Ice Age of 1400 through 1850) more precipitation fell as snow. The increased proportion of snow would result in a slightly smaller proportion of recharge to the ground -water system and surface runoff during the winter, and a slightly larger proportion during the spring melt. Ground -water seepage has augmented stream flows and cooled water temperatures during the entire Holocene. This moderating effect is particularly noticeable during summer low flows. Alterations of vegetative cover, occurred first by natural forest succession and by natural disturbances, predominantly fire. ebtore recently, human activity altered the landscape by harvesting timber, building roads, and clearing land for communities and farms. The altered cover modified the amounts of evapotranspiration, surface runoff, and infiltration to ground water. In former old - growth forests, trees - consumed much of the incident precipitation by transpiration and by evaporation of water intercepted in their canopies. Today's recently harvested stands, by contrast, do not have such high evapotranspiration losses, and so more water remains to run off on the surface or infiltrate to ground water. Old- growth forest litter held water on the forest floor, retarded surface runoff, and enhanced infiltration to ground water. Today's cleaner forest floors allow more loss as storm runoff, and, consequently, less water is available for recharging the ground -water system. Besides changing ground -water recharge, current activities have also had small impacts on ground -water flowpaths and water -table levels. Road grades slightly rerouted ground -water flowpaths by compacting the near- surface layer. The grades also slightly altered the water table by holding water in ponds. Human activity in historical times has caused slight alteration of flowpaths and sediment transport. Roads _ have caused rerouting of surface flows. Usually, culverts, bridges, or ground -water flow have allowed the water to flow by such obstacles in relatively unaltered fashion. Clearcuts and roads have caused increases in sediment loads in the watersheds. Stream -bank erosion from harvest and livestock use along riparian areas has caused slight increases in fines within limited stream reaches. However, the impact has been comparatively smaller than other basins, partly due to low topographic relief throughout the watersheds. The steeper Olympic foothills and mountains contribute limited fines because of its relatively small area, hard basalt bedrock, and shallow soils. Clearcutting likely increases storm flows and results in increased disturbance of streambed Gravels used for salmon spawning. Higher storm flows can also increase bank scour, resulting in possible increases in finer sediment, also detrimental to spawning fish, if the banks happen to contain fine particles. Overland storm flows on recently cleared land can augment the amount of sediment. According to the Puget Sound Cooperative River Basin Team, peak flows have increased above natural conditions due to forest practices. However, runoff and erosion problems were considered site specific and apparently not widespread. Assuming lowered harvest levels in future decades, runoff and erosion 10s problems will show an improving trend, though the sediment load may persist for a longer period (Nelson et al. 1992). Low stream flows are detrimental to Fish that try to use streams in the summer. in some cases, the streams are already extremely shallow at low Flow, and further lowering is detrimental to habitat quality. Lowered summer streamflows reduce survival of rearing salmonids such as coho. The impact on the water supply from withdrawal of ground water from wells for domestic or other uses is unknown. Diversion of Andrews Creek from the Little Quilcene drainage into Snow Creek drainage has affected the flow conditions within Snow Creek, though Ion; term impacts downstream are unknown. Andrews Creek contributes about one third of the total watershed area, and therefore a significant portion of flow. it is presumed that the flow contribution has resulted in elevated peak and low flow levels in the mainstem of Snow Creek. Crocker Lake (and associated wetlands), which had no outlet prior to diversion of Andrews Creek, moderates flow contribution from Andrews Creek through retention of water. It is unclear whether overall wetland acreage is increasing or decreasing. Wetlands occur when the ground -water table is at the surface. The elevation of the ground -water table depends on the amount of water that infiltrates into the ground instead of being lost to evapotranspiration or runoff. Water levels in the wetlands and in ground water also depend on the levels at which surface water can bypass obstacles such as topography or road grades. Several processes may alter the level of the water table; these include ponding by roads, changes in climate, and alterations of evapotranspiration. Climatological changes also play a part in changes of wetland area. Drier- than - normal conditions existed in the late 1930s to mid- 1940s, and wetter conditions from the 1940s to late 1970s. Wetland areas may have decreased in the earlier period, and increased after the 1940s. Drier conditions have again prevailed since 1977, and may contribute to decreased area. Floodina in the valley would be intensified without functioning wetlands in the Olympic foothills and mountains, and in Snow Creek Valley itself. The higher elevation wetlands retain and slow the water. Wetlands in the higher elevations modify flooding events by retaining and slowing water in the upper part of the watershed. Wetlands in the valley, such as the Crocker Lake system, retain large quantities of water and significantly slow flows. Wetlands and wooded riparian areas farther down in the valley slow flows and allow floodwater to spread out and deposit sediment outside the stream channel (Nelson et al. 1992). Even though wetlands associated with agricultural use are in a degraded state, they provide critical habitat for wintering and migrating waterfowl (Nelson et al. 1992). Fires occurring on a two hundred year cycle, since the early 1300s, likely were the greatest natural impact to water quality. Early Native American habitation probably had little impact on water quality. Later, European settlement concentrated in small communities., which increased the potential impact to surface and around waters. The cumulative effects of diversion of Andrews Creek into the Snow Creek drainage, diversion of water for domestic use within the watersheds, and rechannel ization of Snow Creek in the lower valley is unknown. Forest practices, including salvage operations following the 192=1 and 1925 fires, as well as current activities have altered water quality. Livestock management operations have also lessened water quality. Overall, slopes in these watersheds are stable, and management activities should not have a major effect on their stability. Mass wasting is not likely to be triggered outside of road corridors on the gentle slopes. Failures can occur on road fillslopes and cutslopes, especially if constructed or maintained in an over - steepened condition and unvegetated state_ Surface erosion cannot deliver sediment over long distances on gentle slopes to the aquatic environment. Mass wasting and surface erosion constitute concerns primarily along stream corridors. These are the areas Generally containing less stable soils and, in the Snow Creek basin, where streams have cut into erosive 109 bedrock material such as mudstones and siltstones. In addition, sections of some streams (see Channel Module) Flow through inner gorges, areas of very steep slopes and unstable soils. As the inner gorge slopes are adjacent to the streams, any material moving off these slopes will be delivered into the stream system. Climate on the Olympic Peninsula has been similar throughout the Holocene (the last 10,000 years or so). Small variations in climate during the Holocene caused moderate shifts in the distribution of vegetative species within the watersheds. Climate fluctuations have also greatly influenced wildfire occurrence. Fires that occurred during the Hypsithermal Period were assumed to be large and intense, with few small fires. Three large burn periods were known to have happened from 1300 to 1750 during the Little Ice Age. These stand - replacing fires that occurred in 1308, 1508, and 1701, essentially spread across the entire landscape within Snow and Salmon watersheds. It is speculated that these fires occurred because of a shift in the position of the jet stream resulting in drier summer conditions, and increased high east winds (Henderson et al., 1989). The patterns of vegetation reflect that this watershed is in the rainshadow of the Olympic mountains and does not have great ranges in elevation. There are only two forested zones within the watershed. Above 3000 feet in elevation, in the snow dominated zone with north aspects, there is a small area that is generally dominated by Pacific silver fir. The remainder of the watershed is represented by the western hemlock zone that has a milder climate. In the lee of Mt. Zion, there is a wetter ecology zone than in the rest of the NE corner of the Olympic peninsula (Henderson et al. 1959). The site conditions are cooler and wetter here than to the west in the Dungeness river drainage. This ecology zone may be due to the convergence of weather systems from the Strait of Juan de Fuca and Puget Sound. Within this zone are more productive forest stands than in surrounding areas. The more recent burning episodes have been smaller, but have still burned the entire watershed from the mid 1800s to the mid 1920s. The lower and mid portions of the watershed burned in 1864, and much of the lower as well as the upper portions burned in the 1920s. Natural regeneration following fires was generally heavy that resulted in dense stands. Where the site is poor. as in some of the higher elevations, natural mortality is slow in occurring and the development of the whole stand slows. This creates a " doghair stage" that is represented by many small trees which brow very slowly. Historically stands in this area may go through a doghair stage. Dead stems in these slowly evolving, dense stands provide additional fuel for fire. Many stands probably never got to large size before being destroyed by fire, unless they escaped a round of fires by being in a wetter, cooler area. Ground disturbing harvest activities have exposed mineral soil that has likely increased the amount of alder in the watershed. Alder was likely found naturally along riparian areas. When fire occurred, the duff was likely still intact and alder did not invade extensively. When roads and harvest activities exposed mineral soil to sunlight, the conditions were excellent for red alder. As alder invaded, there was additional seed source when seed bed conditions were right. Alder is now a very common component of stands that have been harvested. Sdvicultural treatments are generally needed in order to maintain conifer characteristics in a stand following harvest. Channel gradient provides a measure of the energy available to the stream system (by directly influencing velocity of flow). Stream energy is responsible for doing work, transporting sediment. controlling substrate material size, recruiting trees, scouring and redistributing bed and banks, in short creating in stream habitat conditions. Confinement influences how energy may be distributed in the channel. For example during flood an unconfined channel may dissipate excess energy by expanding laterally over the bank, while a confined channel has less freedom and does work on its bank, bed or translates [flat enemy downstream. 110 It is important to identify input source areas, for sediment and wood, and link these processes and areas to sensitive channel segments (i.e.. those segments where these processes have direct and /or long term effects to stream channel character or in- stream habitat conditions). Canyon, inner gorge, or valley walls contribute sediment (primarily course) and wood to adjacent stream channel segments. Large wood is an important structural element in some of these transport channel segments as described in previous sections. Transport channel segments route impacts down stream. Sediment inputs are predicted to have the greatest and longest term effects in the first significant response reaches downstream. Where long reaches of response channel extend down stream (i.e., the lower system), impacts are indirect, long term and difficult to detect. Table 32 links source geomorphic types with effect to transport channel and downstream response: Tet,lo ) f:ammnrnhir cnnrrP TvnPC with Trancnnrt and Remonse Source Transport Response Geomorph Process Channel Se, Effect Segment Effect Ti mass wasting B7, BS Iwd recruitment Lower B7 increase course input sed, lwd - short term sediment B6 sediment' TI mass wasting C4, C5a Iwd recruitment C3 increase course input sed, Iwd short term sediment sediment T2 mass wasting A2 input sed, Iwd Long routing to response segments L2 mass wasting 1311, B12 " input sed, Iwd L2 mass wasting B16, B17 input sed, Iwd Cl mass wasting 4,5 Iwd recruitment 3,(2) input sed, Iwd short term sediment C2 S 7 Expect sediment to transport more effectively than wood to these segments. Therefore likely effects include pool filling and possibly increase in W:'D. Low gradient channels on glacial benches (G2 geomorphic types) are predicted to be strongly dependent on wood for channel structural complexity. Wetland and riparian interactions are an important component of this geomorphic type. Therefore wetland quality (see Hydrology Ntodule) and riparian condition (see Riparian nodule) are used as a surrogate for stream channel condition. The greatest general effect on fisheries in the Snow and Salmon Creek watersheds is the interrelationship with the riparian corridor. On both creeks the extent of disturbed riparian or other sediment sources in the drainages has a direct effect on the quality of fish habitat. The effects of logging and wildfires during this ` century are waning with the regeneration of second Growth, but these effects still have a great detrimental influence on freshwater salmonid habitat. The critical question is whether or not we can hold on to the last of the critical anadromous stocks for long enough so that the habitat can recover to support them at sustainable rates once again. The best habitat option is to be careful not to de;rade the remaining good habitat and restore the degraded areas. On Salmon and Andrews Creeks the anadromous habitat extends to just inside the inner gorges, possibly - due to the increased gradient. The anadromous fish reach a falls near the ivational Forest boundary on Snow Creek, passing through the Inner gorge in portions of T2SN, R2W, Sec 10 and 11. Resident fish habitat shows an even more consistent pattern, ending between 1400 and 1300 feet in elevation on all headwater streams of both drainages. The headwaters of the two drainages are narrow, not permitting downstream delivery of large pieces of wood to benefit fish habitat. Drainages such as Trapper, which is a fair representative topographically of the other subdrainages, has almost entirely second growth in the riparian corridor, but there still exist remnant down trees from last century in the creek. Even the second growth trees that have fallen in the stream have migrated little due to the channel confinement. The net effect is there is little recruitment of LWD from upstream to anywhere but the uppermost portion of depositional reaches. Sediment transport, however, is not impeded. Salmon Creek Salmon Creek is mostly in state and private lands. Most of the stands within Salmon Creek have been harvested at some time. Much of it is being harvested for a second time in this century. It's speculated that planting did not occur on most of these lands following initial harvest and the stands regenerated naturally. Many of the stands in the Salmon creek watershed are now 20 years of age or younger. Stands on the National Forest have also had recent harvest. The do -hair program on the National Forest that harvested densely stocked stands in the early 1980s has created new stands that are approximately 10 years old. However, there are also stands that are 70 years old from harvest in the 1920s. Some of these stands are included in the Snow Creek planting which was part of experimental planting by the U.S. Forest Service in 1927 through 1929. There were five areas in the northwest, including Snow Creek, that were planted with nursery stock to see if reforestation through planting would work. This is one of the oldest planted stands in the Pacific Northwest. Most of the planted stands have now been commercially thinned. There have been many research studies conducted in these stands. One trial in the Salmon Creek drainage is a small plantation of giant Sequoia along the 2850 road approximately 1/4 mile north of the junction with the 2852 road. These trees are doing well, though shorter than the Douglas -fir. Most of the planted stands were commercially thinned in the 1960s. There are also a few stands, which are some of the oldest in the analysis area (over 170 years old), that were never cut and came in naturally following fire. Vegetation in - the valley bottom is forest land mixed with non forested pasture land. In general, the riparian areas are deciduous, or mixed deciduous and coniferous. The deciduous is primarily alder, with scattered presence of cottonwood and maple. The riparian vegetation in the lower valley has been heavily impacted and is in poor condition. - - Habitat for EIS forest species is extraordinarily abundant at this time. Historically, this habitat would only have occurred for about 20 years after a wildfire. Species would have to adapt or move until the next fire. Now, timber harvest provides expanses of young forest across the watershed, and will likely continue to do so for decades to come. EIS dependent wildlife populations are probably at levels similar to historic post - fire levels, but they will be able to maintain those levels into the future, which was not possible under the Fire regime. One potential limiting factor to several of these species is the high road density in this watershed. Many of these roads are associated with recent timber harvest, so densities are highest in the young stands. Some animals, such as elk, may be affected by human presence in these areas. They may especially be affected by off -road vehicles. Other species, such as rabbits, frequently are killed on roads. The greatest concern for wildlife impacts from high road densities is on State and private lands. CES and URS forest species still have a moderate amount of habitat available on the National Forest. Prior to timber harvest. CES and URS forests were the predominant habitat, stretching across the landscape. Now, much of what CES and URS forest there is, has been thinned to encourage development of large trees. These areas will either be logged soon or will quickly develop DUS. BDS, NDS. FFS, and OGS forest characteristics. Since very few species rely solely on CES and URS forest, this alteration from historic habitat levels probably will not have a substantial impact on species populations. Given the harvest history of the area, habitat for DUS, BDS, NDS, FFS, and OGS species, including the northern spotted owl and marbled murrelet, has been almost non - existent since the mid -late 1800s. Prior to intensive harvest. DUS. BDS, NDS. FFS. and OGS forest would have developed in areas with remnant trees or where good growing sites existed. These would have provided suitable habitat for a few decades 112 until the next fire. Now only 1,384 acres exist in the watershed for these species. State and private lands are not likely to provide additional habitat in the future. Therefore, DUS, BDS, NDS, FFS, and OGS forest species in the watershed will have to rely on the National Forest. The prevalence of deciduous and mixed forest habitat along streams in this watershed make the riparian habitat very desirable for many species, especially a number of neotropical migratory birds. Impacts of timber harvest in the lower watershed have made much of the riparian habitat unsuitable for many of these species. As the stands develop, species will presumably repopulate the habitat, similar to what must have happened when riparian areas were lost to fires. The response reach identified in the upper watershed correlates to both large woody debris recruitment, which implies availability of large trees that may be beneficial to a number of species, and several forested wetlands. Forest wetlands are important habitat for many analysis species, including bats, molluscs, cavity users, and neotropical migratory birds. Occurrence of wetlands in the response reach indicates a need for additional care in managing the source and transport reaches that precede the wetlands to protect the water quality and habitat condition. Trapper Creek At the headwaters of Trapper Creek there was extensive harvesting of overstocked stands in the early to mid 1980s to convert them from do -hair conditions to faster arowina managed conditions. The younger aged stands are in the headwaters. In the rest of the watershed the stand age is primarily 70 years, having been regenerated following harvest and burning in the 1920s. The lower portion of Trapper Creek is included in the Snow Creek planting which was part of experimental planting by the U.S. Forest Service in 1927 through 1929. Most of the planted stands have now been commercially thinned. There are a number of research studies being conducted in these stands. It appears that some of the better growing stands are located in the soils that have developed as a result of continental glaciation and recessional outwash (QC geological label), especially below 2000 feet in elevation. These soils can be quite permeable with a compacted layer at 3 -6 feet deep. There can be available sub - surface moisture draining along the compacted layer. Riparian composition along Trapper Creek is mostly coniferous, with some mixed stands. There is sparse stocking along two areas within channel segment A2. There is generally good potential for recruitment of Large Woody Debris (LWD) and shade is good where fish are present. Because of this harvest history, the Trapper Creek drainage is quite different from Salmon Creek and from what it looked like though much of its history. In Trapper Creek, EIS forest species must rely on the areas in the headwaters that were logged in the 1980s. The rest of the drainage provides CES and URS habitat, with a stand or two containing remnant trees that might be suitable for some DUS, BDS, NDS, FFS, and OGS species. The prior management of much of this CES and URS habitat, through the original clearcutting and subsequent thinnings, has reduced the quality of that habitat for those species that require snags and down wood relative to what would have developed naturally after a fire. However, the management has increase the quality for those species dependent on understory vegetation. The commercial thinning of much of this area has encouraged more rapid development of the forest than probably happened after fire. Therefore, if stands are not logged for some time still, they may evolve out ofthe CES and URS stage more quickly than happened historically, providing habitat for DUS. BDS, NDS, FFS, and OGS forest species. These species currently have almost no habitat in Trapper Creek. Fragmentation of the habitat has reduced its suitability for some species. such as owls, and it may result in lower populations than were present late in the historic fire cycles. However, if some areas are managed for development of DUS, BDS. NDS. FFS, and OGS forest habitat, historical population trends of many species may not be substantially altered. ivlanv of the species identified as riparian dependents will not use the primarily coniferous habitat found throughout Trapper Creek. However, if these areas are allowed to develop naturally, they will evolve into the moist DUS. BDS, NDS, FFS, and OGS forest habitats preferred by some molluscs, bats. and others. Since it is likely that coniferous forests were normal in the riparian areas of the past, this evolution to DUS, BDS, NDS, and FFS forests should be similar to historic patterns. Upper Snow Creek (within the National Forest) The forests in the headwaters of the watershed came in naturally following fire in 1924 and 1925. The lower elevations on the National Forest were harvested and planted. The stand age throughout this portion of the watershed is primarily 70 years. The lower portion on the National Forest is included in the Snow Creek planting which was part of the experimental planting by the U.S. Forest Service. Most of the planted stands have now been commercially thinned. There have been a number of research studies conducted in these stands. A photo point series of the plantations has been taken from 1929 to 1992 documenting stand development. It appears, as in Trapper Creek, that some of the better growing stands are located in the soils that have developed in the glacial outwash (QC geological label), especially below 2000 feet. When this area was planted, Douglas -fir was the primary species, but there was also a trial planting of Ponderosa pine in the upper portion of the planted area. This species is not doing, very well with only a few remaining live trees. Most of the Douglas -fir that were planted, were then commercially thinned in the 1960s and 1970s, and have developed into nice stands. Since thinning, they have developed a heavy understory of western hemlock and, in some cases, alder. The understories are now 4 to 10 feet high. In the areas of the watershed that were not planted, western hemlock is the primary forest species. These stands for the most part have not been thinned due to their small size and uneconomical condition. The unthinned stands have a depauperate understory. There has been some clear cutting of these overstocked stands in the 19SOs, but it is not extensive. Those plantations have been primarily planted with Douglas- Riparian vegetation has good recruitment potential for LWD, with coniferous or mixed deciduous and coniferous trees in good supply. Shade is also good throughout the length of fish bearing channels. Similar to Trapper Creek, the portion of Snow Creek watershed that covers National Forest land provides extensive CES and URS forest, with very little else. There are a few pockets where remnant trees enable stands to provide DUS, NDS, and FFS forest habitat, and other small areas of young plantations. Otherwise, the drainage is either 70 years old and overstocked, which provides habitat for very few species, or 70 years old and developing well under management. This homogeneity reflects the historical condition of the watershed, so the species present in the watershed are probably the same and the populations should be similar to historic levels. The stands that were planted and then thinned are moving rapidly toward DUS, BIDS, NDS, FFS, and OGS forest, with the development of an understory. Stands of this type would have been slow to develop traditionally after fires. Timber harvest has encouraged the understory to develop more rapidly than would happen naturally. There are fewer snags and down logs than would have been left by fires. Particularly where these stands overlap with the good growing sites associated with specific soils, areas might be managed to quickly develop the large trees required by many DUS, BDS, NDS, FFS, and OGS forest species. As with Trapper Creek, the prevalence ofconiferous forest along streams will limit the species that use these areas in the near -term. The development of large trees similar to those that survived fires in the past will result in excellent travel corridors for many DUS, BDS, NDS, FFS, and OGS forest species and habitat for many moist, DUS, BDS, NDS, FFS, and OGS forest species. Once again, this is probably similar to the historic pattern of habitat and species presence. 114 This portion of the Snow Creek watershed includes a number of forest wetlands, particularly in the area identified as recessional outwash (QC) on the geology map (map 3). Some are quite small and may not provide wetland habitat. However many contain riparian vegetation that makes them unique within the stand. These wetlands may be quite important to species of molluscs. bats, birds, amphibians, and rare plants. if wetlands are identified where they maybe impacted by the unstable soil areas and!or source channel reaches, particular care should be taken in planning management to avoid negative impacts to the %vedand habitats. Lower Snow Creek (off the National Forest) The forests in lower Snow Creek have, for the most part, been cut twice in this century. Some cutting, units on private lands have been up to 1500 acres in size. Conversion of forest to agricultural lands in the valley bottom began in the 1350s to 1860s. The Discovery Bay sawmill came in 1858 and by l SS5 it shipped 28 million board feet of timber per year. Fires in 1863 burned the Snow Creek watershed below what is now the National Forest, and most of it burned again in the 1920s. Riparian vegetation recruitment potential for LWD in the streams is categorized as marginal except below the West Uncas Road, where it becomes poor. This racing is best where coniferous trees are well stocked and poor where there are hardwoods or sparse stocking. Shade cover for streams is in good on the mainstem Snow Creek, except in sections of the canyon and downstream of West Uncas Road. Compared with historical conditions, it is thought that there is currently more alder in the riparian areas and the watershed. Disturbances by fire, timber harvest and agriculture have contributed to this condition. The lower portion of Snow Creek watershed is similar to the lower reaches of Salmon Creek: predominantly young forest. There is substantially more EIS forest available now than would have occurred naturally at any time except immediately following a fire. Therefore, EIS forest species are probably more abundant than during most of the history of this area. Alder has grown in after timber harvest very heavily in some places. Scarification of the soil improves site conditions for alder, so alder densities are Likely much higher now than they were when stands were regenerated by fire. A number of birds, and even foraging, mammals, prefer deciduous forests. These species have higher population levels now, when they have alder thickets in young stands, than in historic times. The one thing that might affect this statement is spraying of herbicides, which may be happening in some areas to reduce the quantity of alder in young plantations. CES and URS forest habitat is less available than it would have been throughout much of the past. Species will probably always have some level of habitat available, but it will not be the vast expanses that developed after a wildfire. DUS, BDS, NDS, FFS, and OGS forest species may never have much, if any, suitable habitat in this part of the drainage. Since most of this land is in non - federal management, it likely will be managed for timber production in the future. Stands will likely develop into CES and URS forest and will be harvested prior to developing DUS. BDS, NDS, FFS, and OGS characteristics. Andrews Creek In the Rixon tributary- of Andrews Creek there are no young plantations developed from clearcuts on the National Forest. The stands originated in 1936 with planting by the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC). Below the National Forest there has been significant cutting including a 1,500 acre clearcut on private lands that have since come under State DNR management. Most of Andrews Creek watershed off the National Forest has been heavily clearcut in the last 20 to 25 years The LWD recruitment potential is rated as "good" on the National Forest along fish bearing streams. The LWD recruitment off the National Forest is "poor" through the 1500 ac clearcutjust off the National 115 Forest, and then returns to a "good" rat in-to within about I mile of highway, U.S. 101. It finally is rated ..poor" along the highway and through the Crocker Lake area until just before it joins with Snow Creek. Shade on Andrews Creek is "good" from its headwaters to Bolton's farm, except through the 1,500 acre clearcut. Shade is rated "poor" from Bolton's farm to about 500 feet from its confluence with Snow Creek. Reed canary grass, a Washington state noxious weed, grows in the wetland upstream of Crocker Lake. As with Salmon Creek, the type of habitat provided by Andrews Creek varies substantially between the National Forest and State and private land. East of the Forest boundary, EIS forest habitat dominates the landscape. Species that rely on young forest have an abundance of unfragmented habitat. Other species, such as elk, will benefit from the forage provided by young stands, but will have to travel substantial distances at times to reach good cover habitat. For these species, a better mix of EIS and CES /URS, or DUS. BDS, NDS, FFS, and OGS forest would be preferable. Most species that prefer young forest habitat to satisfv at least a portion of the life requirements should have higher populations on State and private lands now than were present when wildfires managed the landscape. On National Forest land, nearly all the forestland is 60 years old, providing CES and URS habitat. The density of these stands limits their suitability for a number of species. Although the area was planted, it probably closely resembles what the area looked like in the past, with large expanses of CES and URS forest and little else until the stands evolve. There is one area, along the lower portion of Rixon Creek, that is believed to contain remnant trees from before the last round of fires. This is the only portion of Andrews Creek subwatershed that might provide for DUS, BDS, NDS, FFS, and OGS forest species. Given that fires went through the area less than 100 years ago, this lack of DUS, BDS, NDS, FFS, and OGS forest is to be expected, although there might have been more areas with remnants prior to the logging on State and private lands. The condition of aquatic habitat shows that same dichotomy apparent in the upland vegetation: those areas on National Forest land are primarily dense, coniferous forest, while the State and private lands have substantial areas of deciduous or very little vegetation. The marsh above Crocker Lake and wetlands in the southern portion of the subwatershed provide yet another variety of habitat. All the types of riparian vegetation benefit different species. The diversity enables nearly all species to have some presence in the watershed. Since Andrews Creek did not formerly flow into Crocker Lake, it is likely the marsh is not the same as it was prior to the rerouting. This habitat and the species it supports probably were not as prevalent in the past. The same is true for the deciduous riparian habitat and its dependent species. References Henderson,l.A., D.H. Peter, R.D. Lesher, D.C. Shaw. 1939. Forested plant associations of the Olympic National Forest. USDA Forest Service, Technical Paper 001 -33. 502 pp. Nelson, T., L. Adkins, M. Hoover, 1. Heller, B. McIntosh, and T. Granger. November 1992. The Discovery Bay Watershed. 116 Recommendations and Opportunities Direction for this iteration of the analysis for Snow creek and Salmon creek watersheds is to look at the entire watershed, but to concentrate recommendations on the National Forest. Desired Conditions The desired conditions on the National Forest are described in the Olympic National Forest Management Plan (ONFP) (USDA 1990) as modified by the Northwest Forest Plan (NWFP) (USDA and USDI 1994). The ONFP identified the analysis area as primarily (E I) "Timber Management" with (A IA) "Undeveloped Recreation (Non- Motorized)" in the headwaters near the summit of ivit. Zion. The NWFP overlapped the ONFP with the Aquatic Conservation Strategy Objectives and goals and objectives for Adaptive Management Areas (AMAs) and Late - Successional Reserves (LSRs). Much of the analysis area is categorized by the NWFP as AMA. The AMA consists of landscape units designated to encourage the development and testing of technical and social approaches to achieving desired ecological, economic, and other social objectives. The uppermost portion of the analysis area plus several "islands" are designated in the NWFP as LSR. The LSR is to protect and enhance conditions of Iate- successional and old - growth forest ecosystems. The standards and guidelines for the ONFP continue to apply where they are more restrictive or provide greater benefits for late - successional species. Land and Resource Plan for the Olympic National Forest (1990) Desired conditions for water resources have been identified in the Land and Resource Plan for the Olympic National Forest that was developed with public participation through an EIS and has been approved by the Regional Forester. • The condition of vegetation in riparian areas will be less disturbed. Implementation of Forest -wide Standard and Guidelines will maintain or improve water quality and provide the structural components necessary for diverse, high quality riparian habitat. • Sediment levels in major streams will be significantly decreased in comparison to current conditions. Summer water temperatures throughout the Forest will be well within the tolerance levels of aquatic organisms historically found in the streams. • Activities within municipal watersheds should meet or exceed specific Best Management Practices to provide high quality water for domestic use over the long term. • Water temperature increases on Class I and II streams should be limited to the quantitative criteria in State Standards. • Instream flow on National Forest System lands should be protected through critical analysis of proposed water uses, diversions, and transmission applications and renewal of permits. Northwest Forest Plan (1994) The Northwest Forest Plan was developed from direction by the President of the United States following the 1993 Forest Conference in Portland. It was developed with public participation with an EIS and signed by the Secretaries of Agriculture and Interior. This amends all prior plans that govern the management of the National forest. • Maintain and restore the distribution, diversity, and complexity of watershed and landscape - scale features. • Maintain and restore spatial and temporal connectivity within and between watersheds. • Maintain and restore the physical integrity of the aquatic system. • Maintain and restore water quality necessary to support healthy riparian, aquatic, and wetland ecosystems. • Maintain and restore sediment regime under which aquatic ecosystems evolved. • ivlaintain and restore in- stream flows sufficient to create and sustain riparian, aquatic, and wetland habitats and to retain patterns of sediment, nutrient. and wood routing. 117 • Maintain and restore the timing, variability, and duration of floodplain inundation and water table elevation in meadows and wetlands. • Maintain and restore the species composition and structural diversity of plant communities in riparian areas and wetlands. • Maintain and restore habitat to support well-distributed populations of native plant, invertebrate, and vertebrate riparian - dependent species. Riparian Reserves Riparian areas are terrestrial areas immediately adjacent to a stream or river where the vegetation complex and microclimate conditions are products of the presence and influence of water. Humans have invoked various methods of determining what constitutes a riparian area. On the National Forest, riparian areas are designated with Riparian Reserve widths based on a number of factors. Intermittent streams and wetlands are considered to be riparian areas. Riparian Reserve Designation The Aquatic Conservation Strategy in the NWFP designates Riparian Reserves using site tree potential, slope stability, stream class and slope distance. Interim widths are identified based on these factors. While these interim Riparian Reserve widths are subject to change based on watershed analysis, no information exists at this time to suggest that the interim widths should adjusted. Table 16. Criteria for defining interim Riparian Reserve widths and proposed changes CATEGORIES WIDTHS Fish - bearing stream Includes active stream channel to the top of the inner gorge, or to outer edges of 100 yr. floodplain. or outer edges of riparian vegetation, or distance equal to the height of two site - potential trees, or 300 test slope distance (600 feet total). whichever is greatest. Permanently tlowine. non - fish- bearin_ streams Includes active stream channel to the top of the inner gorge, or to outer edges of 100 yr. floodplain, or outer edges of riparian vegetation, or distance equal to the height of one site - potential tree, or I i0 feet slope distance (300 feet total). whichever is greatest. Constructed pond, reservoirs. and wetlands greater Includes outer edges of riparian vegetation. or to extent oC than 1 acre seasonally saturated soil, or extent of unstable areas. or distance equal to height of one site - potential tree. or 150 feet slope distance from edge. whichever is greatest. Lakes and natural ponds Includes outer edges of riparian vegetation, or extent of seasonally saturated soil, or to the extent of unstable and potentially unstable areas. or distance equal to the hcieht of two site - potential trees. or 300 feet slope distance. whichever is greatest. Seasonally tlowinq or intermittent streams. Includes extent of unstable and potentially unstable areas. or wetlands less than I acre. and unstable and extend to top of inner gorge. or the outer cd_cs lit riparian potentially unstable areas vegetation. or distance equivalent to one s1te- p0tcnt9al tree. or 100 feet slope distance. whichever is greatest The following methodologies Were established in the NWFP for consistent application of stream width criteria forest wide: stream class, site potential - tree height, slope distance, and slope stability. (USDA 1994) Its Stream Class For display purposes, the Olympic National forest Hydrologic Data La'er was used to delineate stream types and their respective interim widths. Site -level planning will be used to further validate the mapping and to update this data layer of the various stream classes. Stream classes are defined as fish bearing, non - fish bearing, and intermittent. Site Potential - Tree Height The use of site potential tree heights as a unit of measure for determining the width of the riparian reserve is suggested by the NWFP (USDA et al. 1994). No further examination of local differences was incorporated in this watershed analysis. The height growth potential for a site was determined by constructing growth curves for Plant Association Groups. Plot data from the Ecology Program was used to construct these curves. Plant Association Groups were delineated using the Plant Association Group (PAG) model which conditions for a particular group of plant associations (Henderson et al., 1989). Each PAG is made up of the first two letters of genus and the species for the climax tree species and for indicator shrub species. For the purposes of this analysis, all locations of a given PAG were treated as having the same height growth potential. Height growth curves for each PAG were constructed by Jan Henderson, Area Ecologist. Curves were carried out to 600 years where they are flat. The height corresponding to 95% of the 600 year potential was selected from each curve as the site potential to be used in constructing the reserve boundaries. The following table contains the heights and the age that height is attained for each PAG in the Snow and Salmon Analysis Area. The average height for the Olympic National Forest is 190 feet. Table 17. Height and Age Relationship to PAG PAG- i�Ei�;Efl' 21 TSHE /RHMA 143 136 250 24 TSHE/GASH 187 178 340 25 TSHE/POMU /GASH 209 199 190 26 TSHE/POMU 221 210 200 27 TSHE/OPHO UNK 210 UNK 32 ABAM /RHMA 148 141 370 33 ABAM /VAAL (dry) 187 173 380 34 ABAivt /VAAL (moist) 176 167 300 Slope Distance - measurement The NWFP specifies distances measured in slope distance for interim widths. Unstable or Potentially Unstable Slopes Riparian Reserves are initially delineated according to the Record of Decision (USDA 1994) with widths prescribed by type of waterbody and site - potential tree height(s). The NWFP (USDA 1994) also states that Riparian Reserves should include source areas for sediment such as unstable and potentially unstable areas in headwaters and along streams. 119 An analysis was accomplished by a combination of two methods: I ) Overlaying the initial Riparian Reserve (GIS) layer over the High- Susceptibility- to -Mass- Wasting polygons of the GIS Geomorphic Slope layer. Where polygons overlapped or were contiguous, the High- Susceptibility areas were added to the Riparian Reserve areas. The rationale was that, if contiguous High- Susceptibility areas failed, they would likely deliver sediment to the stream. 2) Overlaying the Mass Wasting layer (GIS) over the Riparian Reserve layer. Where polygons overlapped or were contiguous, the areas of Mass Wasting features were added to the Riparian Reserve layer. The same rationale was followed as with the High- Susceptibility areas. The Geomorphic Slope Model (See Water Module "Slope Stability and Mass Wasting' pp. 55-59) , highlights primarily areas susceptible to "shallow- rapid" failures. Most of the areas that are of consequence to the streams were delineated by the initial Riparian Reserves areas. However, some of the failures -- and some of the heads of failures -- did not fall within the Riparian Reserves. In those cases, the mapped mass wasting (Map 3) was used to enlarge the Riparian Reserves. The mass wasting features were mapped using aerial photo interpretation and Geotech project files. No field work was done for the purpose of this Watershed Analysis. Riparian Reserve Map The National Forest Riparian Reserve areas have been mapped (Map 16). This map identifies riparian areas on the National Forest according to the NWFP. These Riparian Reserve areas were identified based on available GIS information including: fish utilization, unstable areas and wetlands. If the stream is considered fish bearing, a buffer zone of 2 site potential trees was designated; one site potential tree was used for non -fish bearing perennial and intermittent streams. The average site potential for the Olympic National Forest was used in determining Riparian Reserves. The average site potential tree on the Olympic National Forest is 190 feet. Also included in the Riparian Reserve areas are wetlands (Map 2). Two site potential trees determined buffer zones around lakes and ponds. On the map, wetlands greater than I acre have a one site potential tree buffer. All wetlands less than i acre and unstable areas are included but have no buffer zone. Map 16 highlights the general Riparian Reserve. For project development, site - specific identification should be completed on the ground. Identification of Riparian Boundaries in the Field Boundaries are to be identified in the field during site -level analysis. The following list is not inclusive but should serve to highlight some of the steps in identification. • In the absence of precise site potential data, occurrence and distribution of plant associations should be identified in the field, and the plant association group site curves applied for site potential tree height. If the PAG for the site does not have available Site Potential Tree Heights, then use the Olympic National Forest average of 190 feet. • Locate boundaries of the geomorphic slope and mass wasting features as mapped from aerial photo interpretation. • Use slope breaks as a starting point for boundaries and further refine with local observations on slope instability or potential for instability and wind -throw risk. 120 • Locate all perennial, intermittent and ephemeral streams. Use local knowledge, stream survey data, and locally significant aquatic habitats. Intermittent and ephemeral streams may or may not be flowing water at the time of field work. Look for a defined channel, riparian vegetation, signs of vegetation that are laid downslope from water flow, deposition of sediment and intermittently exposed soil pipes as indicators of these seasonal or infrequently flowing streams. • Locate wetlands, ponds, reservoirs, and seeps. Identify hydrologic network between wetlands when they are in close proximity. • Apply the widest width according to this priority: slope stability then site tree potential measured by slope distance. Riparian areas also include wetlands and intermittent streams. luternutterrt Strearru One of the functions of the Aquatic Conservation Strategy described in the NWFP (p. B -9) is to protect headwater riparian areas, so that when debris slides and flows occur these areas contain coarse woody debris and boulders necessary for creating habitat farther downstream. Some of these headwater riparian areas are intermittent streams. Although intermittent streams are wetted for only part of the year, they contribute both biologically and physically to the watershed. By storing large volumes of hillslope materials, intermittent channels strongly influence, and provide biological products to, downstream ecosystems by controlling the input of sediment, water, woody debris, and nutrients to the rest of the channel system. Perennial channels depend on the seasonal delivery of nutrients from intermittent streams. Intermittent channels may also be susceptible to gully formation and debris flow erosion, which may create areas of considerable potential instability. Fish are not expected to be found in intermittent streams in the upper watershed. This is due to high elevation, steep stream reaches, and highly turbulent water. No fish have been found to date in those intermittent streams on National Forest lands. Intermittent streams, supporting fewer predators than perennial streams, may be seasonally important nursery areas for amphibians. ~ Riparian zones along intermittent streams are important travel corridors for wildlife, providing protective cover for small mammals. birds, molluscs, amphibians and arthropods. Many of these species seasonally rely upon this habitat for meeting various life history needs. Riparian zones along intermittent streams may provide refugia for recolonizing upslope areas that have been clearcut or burned. Riparian zones between upslope springs and the channel, even if they do not directly connect, may also facilitate movement of wildlife between the two. The riparian vegetation and higher moisture content influences fire behavior, and subsequently, the patchiness of large burns. Not all existing intermittent channels in the watershed have been identified and mapped. Field identification of channels is necessary for site -level planning. Wetlands The watershed analysis area contains a number of rich and valuable wetland resources. contributing to the health and diversity of the watershed. (Nelson et. al., 1992) These wetlands are mapped (See Map 2) based on the National Wetlands Inventory. There are also a number of forested wetlands that have never been mapped. 121 Restoration and Habitat Condition Improvement General Analysis Area Recontntendations Plantations should be thinned when they become overstocked to encourage growth and size development of trees. Overstocked stands (i.e. do -hair) could be thinned to promote development of the understory for eventual release. When an area has had vegetation removed whether by fire or harvest, it should be reforested as soon as possible. Riparian corridors and wetland buffers would benefit with a mixture of fast - growing deciduous species and longer term conifer species for shade and to protect the stream /wetland. Alder should be managed to prevent it from out - competing the coniferous trees. Alder presence should remain in the stands. Areas that contain the fungus that causes laminated root rot should be managed to minimize damage to forest stands. Management opportunities are mostly limited to promoting tolerant or immune species where the disease is found. Coarse woody debris and snags are low in numbers within managed stands. These need to be increased. Therefore, retain snags and down wood within managed areas where possible and create snags and cavities in 55+ vear old CES and URS stands that have depleted numbers, especially in areas adjacent to young plantations and stands providing habitat to late- successional forest species. Areas with remnant trees should be protected to retain late - successional attributes for dependent species.'` Protect individual remnant trees in stands to be managed in order to provide habitat for late - successional species more quickly after management. Ensure forested buffers along streams and around wetlands to provide sufficient shade, habitat, cover and resistance to blo%vdown. Restore wetland vegetation through planting of native species and removal of non- native invasive species. Protect forested wetlands with regard to vegetation complex and water quality /quantity. Provide patches of deciduous habitat along stream habitats and/or retain a portion of existing deciduous upland habitat for neotropical migratory birds and other deciduous forest users. Promote future long -term recruitment of large woody debris in riparian areas through planting conifers in primarily deciduous stands, concentrating in source areas of all depositional reaches and also the lower extents of transport reaches. Densely stocked riparian areas should be thinned to encourage development of large diameter trees. LSR should be managed for forests to develop late- successional forest characteristics more rapidly than would happen naturally. Priority for this management should be given to areas adjacent to currently suitable habitat to reduce the impacts of fragmentation. In order to meet ANtA and LSR objectives, wildfire must be minimized. Large woody debris within stream channels should not be removed. If an inventory indicates L%VD deficiencies, the addition of logs should be considered. Develop a strategy that would identify road stabilization and watershed restoration opportunities. This would include Watershed Inventory (WIN), Access and Travel Management (ATM), and be consistent 122 with the Standards and Guidelines in the Olympic National Forest Plan. Upgrade the culverts in both size and number to provide adequate drainage for I00 -year floods and fish passage. Sidecast pullback, especially in Riparian Reserve zones, can help address slope stability and sediment production from roads. Analysis of culvert location and spacing with the intent of relocating and/or reducing spacing of ditch relief culverts or constructing water bars can help reduce sedimentation. Analyze culvert size and outlet design to determine potential to cause scouring, aggradation, increase in velocity or plugging of the culvert.. Evaluate roads and areas adjacent to - or crossing - streams (bridges, culverts, etc.) for erosion and mass wasting potential Incorporate inner gorge or canyon walls into Riparian Reserves on the basis of unstable and potentially unstable land with direct effects to channels (both sediment and wood delivery). Geomorphic Types T1, GI. While a comprehensive treatment of effects to the lower systems, off the National Forest, are beyond the scope of this analysis, a few hypotheses are listed below: • Riparian vegetative condition relates directly to stream condition,nealth especially in lower systems. Base dependency of pool formation on various types of channel wood interactions. • Predicted side channel and secondary channel loss in lower constrained, diked and pasteurized sections impact certain aquatic species and probably- inhibit flood conveyance and/or attenuation of peak flows/runoff. • Expected loss of wetlands and seasonally wet areas (Lower Snow, Salmon and Andrews) connected to the channel system may affect off channel habitats and water availability during low flow periods as well as run off attenuation. • Buffer all unstable upper slopes from ground - disturbing activities and stabilize existing sites. Specific Recommendations While it is acknowledged that many needs exist on state and private land, the suggestions here primarily focus on National Forest Land. Salmon Creek Protect and enhance identified refu2ia stream habitat according to the Aquatic Conservation Strategy and future habitat surveys. Identified refugia is the unnamed tributary to Salmon Creek that enters it on the right bank at the county line. Protect late- successional habitat and remnant trees, with emphasis on the area used by the east doghair spotted owl pair. Monitor the suspected goshawk nest site. I'vlanage the area to retain sufficient suitable habitat for a reproductive pair. Future LWD recruitment potential should be established with riparian planting in the under - stocked areas. concentrating in all depositional reaches and in the lower extents of transportational reaches 123 No ground breaking activities should occur in the unstable sediment source areas. Address the adult resident fish passage blockage affecting spawning migration at the following culverts: • FS Road 2845, Salmon Creek • FS Road 2550, Salmon Creek • FS Road 2850, middle of section 32, Salmon Creek tributary Trapper Creek Historically below 2000 feet in elevation, and within the QC type soils within the Trapper Creek, Salmon Creek, and Upper Snow Creek, stands have grown some very large trees up to 48" in diameter with 40 trees per acre. This would be a good area to grow very large trees in conjunction with other stand management scenarios. Avoid timber harvest and other ground breaking activities within the inner gorge of Trapper Creek Future LWD recruitment potential in riparian areas could be enhanced with riparian planting in the areas with low coniferous stocking, concentrating in depositional reaches and in lower extents of transportational reaches. No ground breaking activities should occur in the riparian areas along the inner gorges and unstable sediment source areas above the 2852 road. The inner gorge of Trapper Creek is the least impacted area of this stream and may provide refugia benefits above the 2852 road. Management activities should protect this option. Address the fish passage blockage at the following culverts: • FS Road 2850, Trapper Creek Upper Snow Creek Protect late - successional habitat and remnant trees, with emphasis on the area previously used by the Snow Creek spotted owl pair. Monitor the historic heron rookery near the Forest boundary to determine if it is still active. Manage the area to ensure continued suitability for heron nesting. Manage those forested wetlands that are providing habitat for riparian and wetland dependent species for the conservation of those species. Monitor the known goshawk nest site. Manage the area to retain sufficient suitable habitat for a reproductive pair. Future LWD recruitment potential should be established with riparian planting in the under - stocked areas, concentrating in all depositional reaches and in the lower extents of transportational reaches. No ground breaking activities should occur in the riparian areas along the inner gorges and unstable sediment source areas above the 2551 Road on the North Fork and between 1.400 feet and 2.100 feet in elevation on the South Fork. The South Fork of Snow Creek has been minimally impacted by roads and ground breaking activities. Management activities should protect refugia for resident fish. Address the fish passage blockage at the following culverts: • FS Road 2850, Snow Creek 124 • FS Road 285 1, Snow Creek • FS Road 285 I, middle of section 8, Snow Creek tributary Andrews Creek Future LWD recruitment potential should be established with riparian planting in the under - stocked areas, concentrating in all depositional reaches and in the lower extents of transportational reaches. Management activities should protect potential refugia in Andrews Creek for resident fish. Rixon Creek Future LWD recruitment potential should be established with riparian planting in the under - stocked areas, concentrating in all depositional reaches and in the lower extents of transportational reaches. - Rixon Creek may provide refugia for resident fish populations. Management activities should protect refugia for resident fish. Transportation Planning Avoid ground breaking activities within the inner gorges of streams within the watershed in trans portationaI reaches. Opportunities for Commodity Production Thinning of forest stands can provide a variety of benefits, including timber harvest_ Plantations 25 -30 years in age should be pruned as needed to improve wood quality, increase light to promote development of the understory, and reduce dead branches that can become fire ladders. Increased value of the products will allow smaller size projects to be economically viable in the future. CES and URS stands (30 to 70 years old) can be fertilized, in stands that have low enough stocking to respond, to promote growth. This «•ill produce larger and therefore more valuable trees in a shorter amount of time. Management towards creating favorable conditions for special forest products development and harvest should be promoted. This area is well used by individuals with permits for special forest products. Thinned stands can promote understory growth that is desired for harvest, and other products can be researched and promoted. Some of these stands are dense and growing slowly. These should be examined for the possibility to provide wood for the wooden boat industry. Information Needs All ages of stands should be examined on a 10 year interval to determine individual stand needs. Evaluate stands with remnant trees to see if they provide habitat for late successional species. Inventory wetlands and forested wet areas to determine habitat quality for native plants and animals; determine limiting factors and opportunities to encourage, improve. or restore habitat. Continue photo point monitoring within the Snow Creek plantations which have been established since 1929. These photo points are monumented on the ground and photos should be kept current. 125 Continue long -term research within the original Snow Creek plantations. Do not compromise research values for commercial timber harvest. Survey suitable habitat for northern spotted owls and marbled murrelets. Complete a fish habitat survey of both watersheds. References Henderson, 1.A., D.H. Peter, R.D. Lesher, D.C. Shaw. 1989. Forested plant associations of the Olympic National Forest. USDA Forest Service, Technical Paper 001 -S8. 502 pp. USDA. 1990. Land and Resource Management Plan, Olympic National Forest. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region, Olympia, WA. USDA and USDI. 1994. Record of Decision for Amendments to Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management Planning Documents Within the Range of the Northern Spotted Owl. Standards and Guidelines for Management of Habitat for Late - Successional and Old- Growth Forest Related Species within the Range of the Northern Spotted Owl. 100+ pages. 126 Appendix GLOSSARY Aggradation: The process of building up a surface by deposition. Specifically, the upbuilding performed by a stream in order to establish or maintain uniformity of grade and slope. Applies to persistent mean changes over periods of time measured in years. Alluvium: General term for unconsolidated detrital material deposited during _. comparatively recent geologic time by a stream or other body of running water. Anadromous fish: Species, such as salmon and steelhead, which hatch in fresh water, spend a large part of their lives in the ocean, and return to fresh water rivers and streams to reproduce. Aquatic ecosystem: Any body of water, such as a stream, lake or estuary, and all organisms and non - living components within it functioning as a natural system. Aquifer: The underground layer of rock or soil in which groundwater resides capable of yielding a significant amount of water to wells or springs. Aquifers are replenished or recharged by surface water percolating through soil. Arete: A narrow serrate mountain crest or rocky sharp -edged ridge or spur, commonly present above the snowline in rugged mountains sculptured by glaciers, and resulting from the continued backward Growth of the walls of adjoining cirques. Base flow: 1) Regulatory base flow: A level of streamflow established in accordance with provisions of Ch. 90.54 RCW required in perennial streams to preserve wildlife, fish, scenic, aesthetic, and other environmental, or navigational values. (WAC 1730500 -050) 2) Hydrologic base flow: water seeping into stream rather than directly from storm runoff. Bedload: A description of a process whereby stream flows, channel shape, and sediments are in constant interaction working to come to an equilibrium. Where additional levels of sediment are put into a stream (i.e. through landslides, road construction) bedload can mean the amount of material being transported through the system. Sediments moving through the system causing changes in channel shape until sediments are flushed out of the system or deposited in stable areas are called bedload. Biological legacy: Items which typically carryover to young forests after fire. For instance, snags, down logs and living trees. Botanicaltv diverse (BDS): Organization and structure of the living plant community becomes complex with time and as the canopy opens further. Absence of coarse woody debris and other elements precludes a developed full, complex biotic community. Braiding: The longitudinal profile of a stream reach in which there are multiple channels which converge and diverge_ Chelan Agreement: An unsigned agreement in 1990 between State government, the Tribes, and other water resource interests outlining a consensus -based approach to water resource issues. The agreement called for the creation of a state -level Water Resources Forum and 2 pilot planning projects to test the approach and was funded by the Washington State Legislature. 12 "• Cirque: A deep, steep - walled recess situated high on the side of a mountain and commonly at the head of a glacial valley, and produced by the erosive activity of a mountain glacier. Climax: The culminating stage in plant succession for a giver site where the vegetation has reached a highly stable condition. Col: A high, narrow, sharp -edged pass or depression in a mountain range, generally across a ridge or through a divide, or between two adjacent peaks; esp. a deep pass - formed by the headward erosion and intersection of two cirques. Colluvium: Soil parent material transported by gravity. Found in mountainous areas where cliffs slough off or where landslides occur. Competitive exclusion (CES): Trees fully occupy the site and compete with one another and other plants for light, water, nutrients, and space to the point where most other vegetation and many trees become suppressed and die. Complexity: Refers to the distribution and abundance of habitat types. Cordillera: A group of mountain ranges including valleys, plains, rivers, lakes, etc., having one general direction. Critical stocks: Stocks of fish experiencing production levels that are so low that permanent damage to the stock is likely or has already occurred. Crown: The upper part of a tree or other woody plant that carries the main system of branches and the foliage. Cubic feet per second (cfs): Movement of a volume of water I foot square and I foot thick past a point in 1 second. Cumulative effects: Those effects on the environment that result from the incremental effect of the action when added to the past, present, and reasonably foreseeable future actions regardless of what agency or person undertakes such other actions. Cumulative effects can result from individually minor but collectively significant actions taking place over a period of time. Debris Avalanche: The very rapid and usually sudden sliding and flow of incoherent, unsorted mixtures of soil and weathered bedrock. Depauperate association: Those forested stands with a ground vegetation too sparse to key to any of the other recognized types. Deposition: The mechanical or chemical processes through which sediments accumulate in a resting place. Depressed stocks: A stock of fish whose production levels are below expected levels based on available habitat and natural variation in survival rates, but above the level where permanent damage is likely. Developed understory (DUS): Understories of (orbs, ferns, shrubs, and trees have developed following death of some dominant canopy trees; there has been insufficient time for diversification of the plant community. 128 Dispersal: The movement, usually one way and on any time scale, of plants or animals from their point of origin to another location where they frequently produce offspring. Diversity: Refers to a variety of things, types, styles or functions in any given system. In the case of watersheds, diversity can refer to a variety of habitat types. Doghair: Heavily overstocked forest stands which have small size trees due to stunted growth. Generally, unresponsive to silvicultural treatments because of stagnated condition. "Trees are as thick as hair on a dog's back." Drainage basin: The land area that gathers water and contributes it to a body of surface water. Also called the watershed of the receiving water body. Drift (glacial): A general term applied to all rock material transported by a glacier and deposited directly by or from the ice, or by running water emanating from a glacier. Drift includes unstratified material (till) that forms moraines, and stratified deposits. Ecosystem: A community of living organisms interacting with one another and with their physical environment. A system such as Puget Sound can also be thought of as the sum of many interconnected ecosystems such as the rivers, wetlands, and bays. Ecosystem is thus a concept applied to communities of different scale, signifying the interrelationships that must be considered. Ecosystem initiation (EIS): Death or destruction of overstory trees by wildfire, windstorm, insects, disease, or timber harvesting leads to the establishment of a new plant community rapidly succeeded by other plant communities until trees dominate the ecosystem. Endangered species: Any species of plant or animal defined through the Endangered Species Act as being in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its range, and published in the Federal Register. Endangered Species Act (ESA): A 1973 Act of Congress that mandated that endangered and threatened species of fish, wildlife, and plants be protected and restored. Erosion: Wearing awav of rock or soil by the gradual detachment of soil or rock fragments by flowing water, wind, freeze /thaw cycles, landslides, bedrock decomposition, and other weathering. Estuary: A coastal water body where ocean water is diluted by out - flowing fresh water. Extinct stock: A stock offish that is no longer present in its original range, or as a distinct stock elsewhere. Individuals of the same species, but different stock. may be observed in very low numbers in the extinct stock range, consistent with straying from other stocks. Extirpation: The elimination of a species from a particular area. Fire regime: The characteristic frequency, extent, intensity. severity and seasonality of fires in an ecosystem_ Fish - bearing streams: Any stream containing any species of fish for any period of time. Fisheries enhancement: Fisheries enhancement is an action taken to create conditions in the biological environment that optimizes survivorship of the fish population in question. 129 Flood plain: Land bordering a stream or river and subject to flooding. Floodway: The channel of a stream, plus any adjacent flood plain areas, that must be kept free of encroachment, such as artificial fill, in order that the 100 -year flood be carried without substantial increases in flood heights. Floristic: Pertaining to flowers or to a flora. Fluvial: Of or belonging to rivers. Fully functional (FFS): Additional ecosystem development provides habitat elements of the necessary large size and the time for development of function (interactions) to provide for the life requirements of diverse vertebrates, invertebrates, fungi, and plants. Geomorphic: Pertaining to the form or shape of those processes that affect the surface of the earth. Geomorphology: Branch of both physiography and geology which deals with the form of the earth, the general configuration of its surface, and the changes that take place in the evolution of landforms. Glaciation: Alteration of the earth's solid surface through erosion and deposition by glacier ice. Glacier: A mass of ice with definite lateral limits, with motion in a definite direction, and originating from the compaction of snow. Glaciofluvial: Pertaining to the meltwater streams flowing from glaciers and to the deposits and landforms made by such streams. — Glaciolacustrine: Deposits and landforms produced by or belonging to lakes which were formed by andtor associated with glaciers. Gravel trap: Holes of almost any size dug along, side the river during a low*flow period in areas of excessive bedload movement. In times of high water the holes fill with sediment moving down stream, thereby lessening bed agaradation. Ground water: All waters that exist beneath the land surface or beneath the bed of any stream, lake, or reservoir, or other body of surface water, what ever may be the geologic formation or structure in which such water stands or flows, or percolates, or otherwise moves. (Ch. 173 -100 WAC) Ground water is created by rain which soaks into the ground and flows down until it is collected and stored at a point where the ground is not permeable, forming natural underground water supplies. Ground water then usually flows laterally toward a river, lake, or the ocean, where it discharges. Habitat: The specific area or environment in which a particular type of plant or animal lives. An organism's habitat must provide all of the basic requirements for life and should be free of harmful contaminants. Habitat assessment: Habitat assessment is a problem analysis process to develop and document a scientifically based understanding of the processes and interactions occurring within a watershed which affect fish habitat. Habitat enhancement: Habitat enhancement is an action taken to create conditions in the physical environment that optimize survivorship of the population in question. 130 Habitat protection: Habitat protection means an action taken or a decision made that protects the physical and /or biological environment in a watershed. Habitat restoration: Habitat restoration means an action taken to correct specific problems identified through watershed analysis or other full watershed inventory processes. Headland: A high point of land or rock projecting into the sea or other water extending beyond the line of coast. Healthy stock: A stock of fish experiencing production levels consistent with its available habitat and within the natural variations in survival for the stock. Herbaceous: Any seed - producing plant that does not develop persistent woody tissue above ground, including (orbs and grasses. Herpetofauna ecology: Ecology of reptiles and amphibians_ Hibernacula: Bat hibernating locations. Usually caves, mines, and buildings. Hydraulic continuity: The natural interconnections between ground water and surface waters. Hydrogeology: The study of the interrelationships of geologic materials and processes with water, especially ground water. Hydrologic base flow: See baseflow. Hydrologic evcle: The continual cycling of water between the land, the sea, and the atmosphere through evaporation, condensation, precipitation, absorption into the soil, and stream runoff. Infiltration: The movement of water through the soil surface into the soil. Infiltration gallery: A horizontal well or subsurface drain that intercepts underflo« in permeable materials or infiltration of surface water_ Infiltration galleries are used when surtace water is not suitable for direct pumping because of silt load, shoreline slope, presence of inert contaminants, or rapid and unpredictable changes in water level, for example. Inner gorge: A stream reach bounded by steep valley walls that terminate upslope into a more gentle topography. Common in areas of rapid stream downcutting or uplift_ Occurs at any scale. (FENIAT) Instream flow: A base flow adopted into Washington State regulations used to condition water ri_hts. A water right for instream resources such as Fish, wildlife, recreation. esthetics, navigation. stock watering, and water quality with a priority date set when the instream flow rule was adopted. Instream Flow Incremental :Methodology (IFL�l): A method of quantitatively relating stream flow to fish or wildlife habitat area. The IFINi combines curves describing the suitability of certain velocities and water depths for selected species and life stages, with measurements of current, depth, and wetted channel width in the area of study. to produce a table relating usable habitat area to stream flow. Intermittent irrigation: The application of water to soil for crop production or for turf, shrubbery, or wildlife food and habitat. Provides water requirements of plants not satisfied by rainfall. 131 Irrigation district: A cooperative, self - governing public corporation set up as a subdivision of the state, with definite geographic boundaries, organized to obtain and distribute water for irrigation of lands within the district; created under authority of the state legislature with the consent of a designated fraction of the landowners or citizens and having taxing power. Irrigation return flow: The part of applied water that is not consumed by evapotranspiration and that migrates to an aquifer or surface water body. Key watershed: As defined by USFS and BLM fish biologists, a watershed containing: 1) habitat for potentially threatened stocks of anadromous salmonids or other fish, or 2) greater than 6 square miles with high- quality water and fish habitat. Life history strategies: These are the variable use in both time and space of rearing and migrating habitats by salmon. Lithology: 1) The study and description of rocks. 2) The physical character of a rock as determined by observations made with the naked eye or with the aid of a low - power magnifier. Litter layer: The uppermost layer of organic debris on a forest floor, i.e. essentially the freshly fallen or only slightly decomposed vegetable material, mainly foliate but also bark fragments, twigs, flowers, fruits, etc. Macroinvertebrate: A large animal without an internal skeletal system. i.e. mollusks, jellyfish. Mass wasting: General term for the dislodgement and downslope transport of soil and rock material under the direct application of gravitational body stresses. The mass properties of the material being transported depend on the interaction of the soil and rock particles and on the moisture content. ,tilass wasting includes slow displacement, such as creep, and rapid movements such a rockfalls, rockslides, and debris flows. Mesic: Pertaining to or adapted to an area that has a balanced supply of water; neither wet nor dry. Multi- layered canopy: Forest stands with two or more distinct tree layers in the canopy; also called multistoried stands. Mycorrhizal fungi: Fungi with a symbiotic relationship with the roots of certain plants. Niche diversification (NDS): Organization and structure of the biotic community becomes complex with aggradation of coarse woody debris, litter, soil organic matter, and botanical diversity; foraging needs of all forest vertebrates are met. Off - channel habitat: Channels or ponds in a floodplain, at least seasonally connected to the primary channel, that are in addition to and frequently parallel the primary flowing channel. These generally occur in unconstrained reaches. Old growth (OGS): Forest ecosystems after more than 200 years of development uninfluenced by modern civilization that have achieved elements of large stature, great diversity, and, complex function. Optimum instream flow: The amount of stream flow determined by IFIM to be needed to provide maximum usable fish habitat. What is optimum instream flow- in any given month also 132 depends upon the species in question. Also called maximum habitat flow. If Toe Width Method is used instead of If IM, optimum instream flow represents spawning habitat only. Outwash: Stratified detritus (chiefly sand and gravel) removed or "washed out' from a glacier by melt -water streams and deposited in front of or beyond the end moraine or the margin of an active glacier. The coarser material is deposited nearer to the ice. Overstory: That portion of the trees, in a forest of more than one story, forming the upper or uppermost canopy. Overnvintering ponds: Off - channel ponds linked to the river or slow- moving side channels, either naturally occurring or artificially created. Overwintering ponds offer protection from floods for any juvenile salmonids that winter over before migrating out to sea, spawning, and for primary rearing areas. Palustrine: Pertaining to material deposited in a swamp environment. Peak flow: The highest amount of stream or river flow occurring in a year or from a single storm event. Perennial stream: A stream that typically has running water on a year -round basis. Permeability: Capacity of soil, sediment, or porous rock for transmitting a fluid. Precommercial thinning: The practice of removing some of the trees less than merchantable size from a stand so that remaining trees will grow faster. Rain -on -snow zone: A "transitional" or "warm" snow zone that develops a snow pack during winter cold periods. A subsequent warm front with warm air and rain can melt much of this snow pack. Reach: The length of stream channel from a riffle into a pool, usually l to l 1/2 times the width of the channel. Recharge: Surface water which enters into a ground -water system. This can be natural recharge, such as from precipitation, or artificial recharge, such as from irrigation or dry wells. Redd: The spawning area or nest of salmonids. The nest is dug into stream gravel to allow water to provide oxygen to the developing embryos and flush out biological wastes. Reforestation: The natural or artificial restocking of an area with forest trees; most commonly used in reference to artificial stocking. Regolith: The laver of disintegrated and decomposed rock fragments including soil, just above the solid rock of the earth's crust. Resting / holding pools: Slow -water off - channel pools which adult salmonids use to rest while migrating upstream to spawn. Resting pools occur naturally or are artificially created as a temporary measure during habitat restoration. Return flows: That part ofdiverted water which returns to the source through seepage, spills, deep percolation, or discharge. 133 Riffle: A segment of the river channel which has moderate to steep gradient. shallow depth. and has higher Flows. Riparian Area: "A geographic area containing an aquatic ecosystem and adjacent upland areas that directly affect it. This includes floodplain, woodlands, and all areas within a horizontal distance of approximately 100 feet from the normal line of high water of a stream channel or from the shoreline of a standing body of water." (FENIAT) Riparian Reserve: "Designated riparian areas found outside the Late- Successional -- Reserves." (FEMAT) River mile (RNI): A measurement of river corridor length beginning at the mouth of the river. Run: Fish stocks grouped together on the basis of similar migration times. Salmonid: A fish belonaina to the family Salmonidae, including salmon, trout, char, and allied freshwater and anadromous fishes. Savanna: A grassland region with scattered trees, aradinG into either open plain or woodland. Scour: Erosion by moving water over relatively short periods of time. Sedg,es: Plants that resemble grasses in their long, narrow, parallel- veined leaves and inconspicuous flowers with several scale -like leaves. Sediment: Solid fragmented material that oriainates from weathering of rocks and is transported or deposited by air, water, or ice, or that accumulates by other natural agents, and that forms in lavers on the Earth's surface at ordinary temperatures in a loose, unconsolidated form; e.g. sand, Gravel, silt, mud, till, loess, alluvium. Siltation: The process by which a river, lake, or other water body becomes clogged with sediment. Silt can clod Gravel beds and prevent successful salmonid spawning. Smolt: A seaward migrating juvenile salmonid, silvery in color, that has become thinner in body form and is physiologically prepared for the transition from fresh to saltwater. Spawning, population: Synonymous with the term "stock." Species: Includes any subspecies of fish, wildlife or-plants, and any distinct population segments which interbreeds when mature. Sec. 3 (15) Endangered Species Act (as amended by the 100th Congress). Stand: A reasonably homogeneous forested area that can be clearly differentiated from surrounding stands by its age, composition, structure, site quality, or geography: Stand - replacement wildfire: A wildfire that kills nearly 100 percent of the stand. Stock: The fish spawning in a particular lake or stream(s) at a particular season, which fish to a substantial degree do not interbreed with any group spawning in a different place, or in the same place at a different season. Stock origin: The genetic history of a stock. 134 Stock status: The current condition of a stock, which may be based on escapement, run -size. survival, or fitness level. Stockability: The ability to reoccupy an area of land by trees, measured by number of trees or basal area. Storm water: Water that is generated by rainfall and is often routed into drain systems or irrigation ditches to prevent flooding. _ Stream: Any non - permanent flowing drainage feature having a definable channel and evidence of annual scour or deposition. This includes what are sometimes referred to as ephemeral streams if they meet both criteria. Streambed: That part of the channel usually not occupied by perennial terrestrial plants, but including gravel bars, and lying between the base or toe of the banks. Subalpine: Growing on mountains below the limit of tree growth and above the foothill zone. Successional Stage: A stage or recognizable condition of a plant community that occurs during its development from bare ground to climax: Thalwea: Tile deepest part or middle of the river or stream channel. The thalweg remains constant through both low and high flows, until it is changed by gravel movement in high flows. Threatened Species: Those plant or animal species likely to become endangered species throughout all or a significant portion of their range within the foreseeable future. A plant or animal identified and defined in accordance with the 1973 Endangered Species Act and published in the Federal Register. Tidal flats: Land that is flat or nearly flat and often muddy and marshy alternately exposed and covered by the ordinary ebb and flow of the tide. Till: Dominantly unsorted and unstratified drift, generally unconsolidated, deposited directly by and underneath a glacier without subsequent reworking by meltwater, and consisting of a heterogeneous mixture of clay, silt, sand, gravel, and boulders ranging widely in size and shape. Transpiration: The evaporation of water from plants which involves the movement of water through the soil - plant - atmosphere continuum. Trophic level: The level in the food chain at which an organism sustains itself. Turbidity: A measurement of the amount of material suspended in the water. Increasing the turbidity of the water decreases the amount of light that penetrates the water column. High levels of turbidity are harmful to aquatic life and fail federal water quality standards. Understorv: The trees an other woody species growing under the canopies of larger adjacent trees and other woody growth. Understory reinitiation (URS): Achievement of dominance by some trees and death of other trees leads to reduced competition that allows understory plants to become established. Vascular /non - vascular plants: A plant that is /is not provided with vessels or ducts which convey fluids like sap. Some examples of vascular are: Some examples of non- vascular: 135 Watershed: The drainage basin contributing water, organic matter, dissolved nutrients, and sediments to a stream or water body. Wetland: Lands transitional between terrestrial and aquatic systems where the water table is usually at or near the surface and the lands covered either seasonally or permanently by shallow water. Wild stock / Fish: A stock that is sustained by natural spawning and rearing in the natural habitat, regardless of parentage (includes natives). Windthrow: Trees felled by high winds 136 Appendix 2 LATE- SUCCESSIONAL FOREST ASSOCIATED FUNGI, LICHENS, BRYOPHYTES, AND VASCULAR PLANTS COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAAME DOC. STATUS FUNGI Mychorrizhal Fungi Boletes Gastroboletus turbinatus R Boletes. low elevation Boletus piperatus R Tvlo ilus pseudoscaber R Rare boletes Boletus haematinus R Boletus pulcherrimus R Gastroboletus imbellus R Gastroboletus ruber R False truffles Nivatogastrium nubigenum R R-hizopogon abietis R Rhizopogon atroviolaceus R Rhi/opogon truncatus R Thamerogaster pingue R Uncommon false truffle Macowanites chlorinosmus R Rare false truffles Alpova alexsmithii R Arcangeliella crassa R Arcangeliella lactarioides R Destuntzia fusca R Destuntzia rubra R Gautieria magnicellaris R Gautieria otthii R Leucogaster citrinus R Leucogaster microsporus R Macowanites mollis R Martellia fragrans R Martellia idahoensis R Martellia monticola R Octavianina macrospora R Ocmianina papyracca R Rhizopogon brunneiniger R Rhizopogon evadens var. subalvinus R Rhizopogon e.\iguus R R.hizopogon flavofibrillosus R Rhizopogon in uinatus R Sedecula pulvinata R Undescribcd taxa. rare Alpova sp. nov. 4Trappe 9730 R Arcangeliella sp. nov. #Trappe 12382 R Arcangeliella sp. nov. Trappe 12359 R Chamonixia pacifica sp. nov. 47rappe 12768 R Elasom -ces sp. nov- #Trappe 1039 R Gastroboletus s . nov. gTrappe 2897 R Gastrosuillus s . nov. #Trappe 7516 R Gvntnomvices s . nov. #Trappe 5052 R Gvmnom yces s . nov. RTra pe 1690.1706,17 10 R G ymnomvices s . nov. #Trappe 7545 R Hydnotrva s . nov. #Trappc 787, 792 R Hydnotrya subnix s . nov. ' Trappc 1861 R Martellia s . nov. -,uTrappe 649 R Martellia s . nov" #7rappe 311 R -" Martellia s . nov. #Trappe 5903 R Rhizopogon s . nov. #Trappe 9432 - R Thaxtero aster # Trappe 4867,6242,7427,7962.8520 R Tuber sp. nov. #Trappe 2302 R Tubers . nov. #Trappe 12493 R Rare truffles Balsantia ni ra R Choiromvices alveolatus - R - Choiromvices venosus R Ela homvices anthracinus R Ela homvices sub%iscidus - _ R Chantrelles Cantharellus cibarius X R Cantharellus subalbidus - X R Cantharellus tubaeformis R Chantrelles - gomphus Gom hus bonarii R Gom hus clavatus R Gom hus floccosus R Gom hus kauffmanii R Rare chantrelles Cantharellus formosus R Poh•ozellus multiplex R Uncommon coral fungi Ramaria abietina R Ramaria araiospora R Ramaria botrvis var. aurantiiramosa R Ramaria concolor f tsugina R Ramaria coulterae R Ramaria fasciculata var. sparsiramosa R Ramaria gelatiniaurantia R Ramaria largentii R Ramaria rubella var. blanda R - Ramaria rubrievanescens R Ramaria rubri rmanens R Ramaria suecica R - Ramaria thiersii R Rare coral fungi Ramaria amvloidea R Ramaria aurantiisiccescens R Ramaria celeri%irescens R Ramaria claviraniulata R Ramaria concolor f" marri R Ramaria cvaneiaranosa R Ramaria hilaris var. oh•m iana R Ramaria lorithamnus R Rantaria maculatipes R Ramaria rainierensis R Ramaria rubribrunnescens R Ramaria stuntzii R Ramaria verlotcnsis R Ramaria gracilis R Ramaria s inulosa R Phaeocoll -bia Phaeocollvbia attenuata R Phaeocolh-bia californica R Phaeocoll-i•bia carmanahensis R Phaeocollvbia dissiliens R Phaeocolh•bia fallax R Pliacocollcbia gre aria R Phaeocollvbia kauffmanii R Phacocolh•bia olivacea R Phaeocolh•bia oregonensis R Phaeocolh•bia piceae R Phaeocollvbia pseudofestiva R Phaeocollvbia scatesiae R Phaeocollvbia sipei R Phaeocollvbia spadicea R Uncommon gilled Catathelasma ventricosa R Cortinarius azureus R Cortinarius boulderensis R Cortinarius cvanites R Cortinarius ma nivelatus R Cortinarius oh•m ianus R Cortinarius s ilomius R Cortinarius tabularis R Cortinarius valgus R Dermocvbe humboldtensis R Hebeloma olym iana R Hy to horus caeruleus R Hvgro horus karstenii R Hv ro horns vernalis R Russula mustelina R Rare gilled mushrooms Cortinarius canabarba R Cortinarius rainierensis R Cortinarius %-ariipes R Cortinarius verrucisporus R Coninarius %viebeae R Tricholoma venenatum R Uncommon ecto-polypores Albatrellus ellisii R Albatrellus llettii R Rare ecto -pol} pores Albatrellus avellaneus R Albatrellus cacruleoporus R Tooth fungi Hydnum repandum R Hvdnunl umbilicatum R Phellodon atratum R Sarcodon fuscoindicum R Sarcodon imbricatus R Rare zv omvcctes Endo -one acrogena R Endo one oregonensis R Glomus radiatum R Sa robes (Decomposers) Uncommon gilled Bacospora mvriado hvlla R Chr♦•som halina grossula R Colh•bia bakerensis R - Favodia racili (rainierensis) R Gvmno ilus puntifolius R Marasmius applanatipes R Mycena hudsoniana R Mvicena lilacifolia R M cena mar inella R Mvicena monticola R Mvicena overholtsii R Mvicena quinaultensis R M •cena tenax R Mythicomvices corneipes R Neolentinus kauffmanii R Pholiota albivelata R Sta nicola perple.xa R Rare gilled mushrooms Clitocvbe subditopoda R Clitocvbe senilis R Neolentinus adherens R Rhodoc-N•be nitida R Rhodocvbe speciosa R Tricholomo sis fulvescens R Noble polypore (rare & endangered) Oxyporus nobilissimus Y R Bondarze%cia polypore Bondarze%%ia montana ( X R Rare resu inates & polypores Aleurodiscus farlo%ltii R Dichostereum granulosurn R Uncommon cup fungi Cudonia monticola - _ R Gvromitra californica T R Gvromitra esculents - R Gvromitra infula R _. Gvromitra melaleucoides - R Gvromitra montana (ss•n G. ggigas) ( R Otidea le ring R Gtidea onotica ( R Cttidea smithii R Plectania melastoma R Podostroma alutaceum R Sarcosoma mexicana , R - Sarcos haera eximia R Spathularia flavida R Rare cup fungi Aleuria rhenana R Brvo lossurn gracile R Gelatinodiscus navidus R Helvella com ressa R Helvetia crassitunicata R Helvella elastica R Helvella maculata R Neournula pouchetii R Pithva vulagaris R Plectania latahensis R Plectania milleri R J Pseudaleuria quinaultiana R Club coral fungi Clavariadel hus ligula R Clavariadel hus pistilaris R Clavariadel hus truncates R Clavariadel hus borealis R Clavariadel hus lovejoyae R Clavariadel hus sachalinensis R Clavariadel hus subfastiaiatus R Jelly mushroom Phlo oitis hel•elloides R Branched coral fungi Clavulina cinerea R Clavulina cristata R Clavulina ornatipcs R Mushroom lichen Phvtoconis ericetorum R Parasitic fungi Astero hors lycoperdoides R Astero hors parasitica R Coll bia racemosa R Cordyceps ca itata R Cordvice s o hioglossoides R HN mvices luteovirens R Cauliflower mushroom S arassis erispa R Moss dwelling mushrooms I Cyphellostereum laeve I R Galerina atkinsoniana R Galerina cerina R Galerina heterocvstis R Galerina sphagnicola R Galerina Nittaeformis R R.ickenella setipes R Coral fungi Clavicorona avellanea ( R LICHENS Rare forage lichen Brvoria tortuos a R Rare leaf }• (arboreal) lichens Hypo, mnia duplicata I R Tholurna dissimilis R Rare nitrogen -fixing lichens Dendriscocaulon intricatulum R Lobaria hallii R Lobaria linita X R Nephroma occultum R Pannaria rubiginosa R Pseudoc}phellaria rainiercnsis R Nitrogen- fixing lichens Lobaria oregana X R Lobaria pulntonaria R Lobaria scrobiculata R Nephroma bellum R Nephroma hel eticum R _ Nephroma laevigatum R _. Nephroma parile R Nephroma resupinatum R Pannaria leucostictoides R Pannaria mediterranea R Pannaria saubinetii R Peltigera collina R Peltigera neckeri _ R Peltigera pacifica R PseudMphellaria anomala R Pseudoc}phellaria anthraspis R PseudMphellaria crocata ,- - R Sticta beauvoisii R Sticta fuliginosa R Sticta limbata R Pin lichens Calicium abictinum R Caliciumn adaequatum R Calicium adspersum _ _ R Calicium glaucellum R Calicium wide R Chaenotheca brunneola R Chaenotheca chrysocephala R Chaenotheca fer uginea R Chaenotheca furfuracea R Chaenotheca subroscida R Chaenothecopis pusilla - R C}phelium inquinans R Microcalicium arenarium R Mycocalicium subtile R Stenocybe clavata R Stenocybe major R Rare rock lichens Pilophorus nigricaulis R Sticta arctica R Riparian lichens Cetrelia cetrarioides R Collema nigrescens R Leptogium burnetiae var. hirsutum R Leptogium cyanescens R Leptogium saturninum R -- Leptogium teretiusculum R Platismatia lacunosa R Ramalina thrausta R Usnea longissima I R Aquatic lichens Dermatocarpon luridum R H},drothyria venosa ( R Leptogium rivale R Rare oceanic influenced lichens Bryoria pseudocapillaris R Bryoria spiralifera R Brvoria subcana R Buellia oidalea R Erioderma sorediatum R HNpog} mnia oceanica R Leioderma sorediatum R Leptogium brebissonii I R Niebla cephalota ( R Pseudmphellaria mougeotiana I R Teloschistes flavicans ( R Usnea hesperina ! R Oceanic influenced lichens Cetraria californica R Heterodermia leucomelos R Loxospora sp nov. "corallifera" (Brodo in edit) R R•rrhospora quernea ' R Additional lichen species Cladonia norvegica R Heterodermia sitchensis ( R Hygomnia vittiata I R Hypotrachyna revoluta R Ramalina pollinaria R Nephroma isidiosum R BRYOPHYTES (mosses & liverworts) Doc.: Species is documented on the Olympic National Forest. Strong suspect as occurring in LSR. Status: R = Northwest Forest Plan Survey and Manage Species S = Regional Forester listed as Sensitive Antitrichia curtipendula (moss) R, Bartramiopsis lescurii R Brothcreila roclli R Buxbauntia piperi R Buxbaumia ,iridis R Diplophyllu albicans R Diplophyllum plicatum (liver-wort) R -- Douinia ovata (liverwort) R Encal}pta brevicolla var. crunuana R Herbertus aduncus R Herbertus sakurali R lwatsuklella leucotricha R Kurzia makinoana (liverwort) R Marsupella emarginata var. aquatica ( livenwort) R Orthodontlum gracile R Plagiochila satol R Plagiochila semidecurrens R Pleuroziopsis ruthenica R Racomitrium aquaticum R Radula brunnea R Rhizomnium nudum R Schistostega pennata (OVA only) R Scouleria marginata (moss) R Tctraphis geniculata R Tritomaria exsectiformis (liverwort) R Tritomaria quinquedentata R Ulota meglospora R VASCULAR PLANTS Candvstick Allotropa virgata X R Mountain hemlock dwarf mistletoe Arceuthobium tsugense ssp. mertensianae X R Mingan moonwort Botrchium minganense S.R Spleemvort- leaved goldthread Coptis asplenifolia S.R Boreal bedstraw Galium kamtschaticum X S.R Doc.: Species is documented on the Olympic National Forest. Strong suspect as occurring in LSR. Status: R = Northwest Forest Plan Survey and Manage Species S = Regional Forester listed as Sensitive Map 1 - Snow & Salmon Creek Watershed Analysis Area r! .......... 28 0.'S y. A 1P 2 A4. N. 29 ANALYSIS AREA LOCATION 0 2 the Forest SwAm armat amrs the mkb&ty or wiftbay of tN$ nfomtdon for a pwdmbr purpose. Odgk%ai data dewato wore compied tam various sautes. SOMW infomiWon may W n"d Nadanal M2ppN AcwmW Standard. Tiffs lnfottraCon may De ttpdted, =roved nookaticn. For v*11tiorW mftffragon abou ths data wnw MA OWmic Nadon2i Forest. 99. 7-29 from pbsd.wd by ils Map 2 - Subwatersheds with Streams & Wetlands SALMON CREEK- SRI CREEK TRAPPER-CREEK :y,`- ANDREWS CBEElE -.,. t LEGEND Subwatershed Bdy. Rivers & Streams Wetlands The fnreat Sw4i= font aeeure tte td2bIlIty or mubOtty of tMs mforrridcn for a paroafhr purpox adgfnat data derwta wom oor pW from wious sauroa. tat hfoan any flat m Natto m>m mt Mopping A=racy Standards. Thta dblAe ad ffpdatad, oorr•Qed or odm wtttnu noo cadon. Fa KNItIonal Womndoa about tHo data wow the Otyapie Natlanat Forest. 9"9-20 tram WAMEaml by so Map 3 - Geologic Units LEGEND ® Qa (Alluvium) El Qc (Glacial Deposits from Continental Ice Sheet) El Tcbb (Basalt Flows) El Tlc (Conglomerate) Tls (Sandstone & Minor Siltstone) ® Ttr (Siltstone & Mudstone) ❑ Water Lacustrine Soils ® High Susceptibility to Mass Wasting 0 1 Miles The Forrest Service =ma aawre the mdabft a ad abiw of tNa intontodan br a particular purpose. Od*W data dartwma wen oonpied from vadous sources. WW infomadon nny not mad National AAappM A=M Standards. TNs nfomamat nay he updated. tsxreaea or atratrsAse modned wrttnut nadfrcad n. For additional hkffnadon 9W tNs data ooaoat the O Mic Nadand Forst. Map 4 - Administrative Boundaries /Ownership T I �i Fx LEGEND ® USFS Late Successional Reserve N USFS Adaptive Management WA Dept. Of Nat. Resources ❑ Private 0 1 2 Miles The Farmt Service Wnd aaawre the �eNabitlty or ntltaDNlry d tNa htorrrWon for a partladar purpaaa odgbal dra d.mem„wm cwosd ircm vanaua �,m>:e. ui infomtatian � nd m Nadartal tkappinq Amuacy Slandarda. T'ia Mommon n+<y be opQaad care¢ed or atWv4se Rvdlled wMw nodffcadw. For additiomi adomtadon abatrt NO daft omm! the otrmic HIdW l Forest. 96-07.24 from OW.ard by sit Map 5 - Hydrologic Maturity ;�,�.,.£• ��,:� may_. C s . ee jjj LEGEND ® Immature ® Intermediate (V 0 Mature ❑ Not Forested ? 0 1 2 Miles The Faeat Service Donal asurs the m4abomy or N*Jb ty d WS hNffndat br a psrdcAr purpose. Adgrd ahta danbrrd wets eonvw horn redatt saurm. Sp9tw intomrdon may nd mod Nzdond �rtay krforrrrd be updusd. csrrwed a dtterrAse modieed wdMd nodticadon. For audit wW idomtdbn dart the daft coataa me OtMic Ndamd Fareat 9"0.20 trap $J".ard by y4 Map 6 - Historic Fire Activity 1 LEGEND ® 1864 ® 1890 -91 N ® 1900, 1906, 1910, 1916 ® 1920 1924 -25, 1930, 1935 s 1 '- Hiles The Fame s«Ma coma uam the nAabAtty or auAaAAny of tMa hlommion br � partlrvlar pun, ase. Orlotnal mo dartents were caspid tram rufous scumes. SP91A hfomonon rw not mod Natiartal Mappno AccuM 9tuuhuds. Tits Infortrnmon nor be t�eatd, rar:eed or atferwfse ttl nd wtttwu na od4on. For aWRImal 6tfoffnadao abad tds data coo the O"ic N>oanal Forest 96-07.21 from ptfryrf.aH by as Map 7 - Number of Times Burned Since 1308 �Y > 'ar -fir. 7+t s c r r LEGEND Number of Fires ❑ 3 N 4 5 ■ 6 1 0 1 2 Miles The Fnraa Senor =wd neon the naababy or adtaNgLy of No infommiaa for a pudadar purpose. Origind data damsmt wen aortpied tmm various source. 3OW i t(h a on WW w meet Natlaml Wapping AcmM Standards. TNs nfommim avy be updated. oorrwed or at errrlse rtndlaed vNtMat no ladm. For addWwal Womralan about tNa data am= the O"ic Rvamal Forest. 99.07.25 tram patmbfarti by sus let- Map 9 - Forest Vegetation Zones LEGEND ❑ Western Hemlock i M1I Silver Fir 1 0 1 2 Miles The Forest !Service arsta =Mrs ;he n0abl8ty or uAablNty of tNs hNmadon for a pwdcwar purpcst Origrd data down won mnpW from wlaw source. spadal kdormdlon may ad mod Nadad Ahppinq Aawracy standards. Ths idomatlon mq be ryduad —, ed or aherwtse modlfled wi[hcut acddcadon. For addtioM irdortrmdan about tNs data cane dre Oynpie Nadaml Forest. 8607.25 from pht.aml by ajs Map 10 - Forest Age Class T I\ M.. LEGEND I Age Class in Years N 0 0 -20 21 - 40 41 - 80 1 0 1 2 81 - 170 Hiles 171 - 400 The Farlt Service end assure the A9abw or a t muty of Ws ❑ Not Forested ittonr000n br a pardadar purpoft Od9� ?�a • wm �sd hoot vc,aa 9m a . Spatw vtom cn nW not mod N Lbpp" PomM Standuda. Stta irdortrtman say be wed mused a attnrnAse modkled vrltlwtt noitkWan. For addkbmt idommton abod WS daft mnoa the Oi mtpic Nadmw Forst. 96-09.25 from plead arts by ap Map 11 - Spotted Owl Habitat •r J � i LEGEND j Classification 1 �v Suitable Roosting, Nesting, & Foraging Dispersal ' 0 1 2 Miles The Forw gvim mma mars fhe mdab#ky or aultlb 4 W No nfommisn br a prdafar purpsaa. 01 data alwomta vmm mn#W flan vinous aourcea. idomo on rtoy nat Nsdmaf MappM A=rwy sue. ms idom - n+ay updrtad. —mued II a atwsrMSe rt»dlflsd vr4hat nadfkWm. For ad kwW mfomudm abm flit daU m(W ft (MMic ftmsl Fw@C M -00 -20 from ptotd mi by sla Map 12 - Marbled Murrelet Habitat '+ �r a� t T t �Y LEGEND Classification Suitable Nesting 0 i 2 Miles The Fmet Serrim coma m r: do mIW ty or mbbft of No infomsmon br a pwdadar purpose. OdOW daa dwwo rrem ampiW from redous sources. S-*W MmmaDon mrgsynd meat N>dw f�oara lion n be updaa4 axredW a aeerwtee nvdied wkhw nodkadm Fa WAWA hbmmton about W5 drbt oonect ttm *"ic Na W Fm C M- 09.20 bmn ptnmd.XW by 60 Map 13 - Precipitation Zones �II Ifl I� f LEGEND j Precipitation Zone ,1 N ® Snow Dominated 0 Rain On Snow E3 Rain Dominated Lowlands i 0 1 Miles The Fabt Bervim rams aaaure ft nnabRy or auftab+fhy of tda information for partfa+lar puryax Crime data dernatta vren conplad from "dous muroe. soxf2i mkmsWon nny not mea Nati Mappity A=M Standards. itia ido - mry be tQd 4 -racred tx at>ernise rrnat0ed wftfa>tt nodic9im For ad timal i fomm(on about ttie data cmW the f "ic National Form. 0.07.25 tram pitrad.amf by ads Map 14 - Channel Segments toc ,� j I JA I It r f � f LEGEND Streams i N N Channel Segments Not 7o Scale The Forest Service cannot assure the reliability or suitability of this information for a particular purpose. Original data elements were compiled from various sources. Spatial information may not meet National Mapping Accuracy Standards. This Information may be updated, corrected or otherwise modified without notification. For additional information about this data contact the Olympic National Forest 96 -08-05 from pftchanf.aml by sjs Map 15 - Upper Extent of Fish Distribution .- Y ONCLI t ` t _ CNK12 �- \ t, ONRESU2� � �r ONKfSU I' J ON 0 C1.2 pN.. 1 ^ ONK ego ��{ ONCLI C2� f COdP LATR2 ' \ ONKi1 r ( t — rC06P� r �^ i ONCLI \ �. COSP2 - .COSPZ .� ONCk5e1( �� t — — LAA12 t LATA1 t :tSNKESU GAAC2 NKI7 I "` v 1 { I LAFtl1 CNGI2y, ONKI w SAFO1 • � � •i r ( CJS � • 'rj ��/ f LEGEND Streams N Resident /Anadromous Presence GGSS1 - Known GGSS2 - Estimated GENUSI SPECI ES COMMON CODE NAME ............. ............. COS? SCUIPIN GAAC THREE - SPI NEO STICKLEBACK IARI WESTERN BROOK LAMPREY IATR PACIFIC LAMPREY ONCL CUTTHROAT TROUT ONCLSE CUTTHROAT TROUT (SEA RUN) ONKESU CHUM SALMON (SUMMER RUN) ONKI COHO SALMON ONMYWI STEELHEAO (WI NTER RUN) SAFO BROOK TROUT 0 1 Miles The Famd sere =md nwre the mbbRy or waaMy e1 thls iobrtrtalon br a Dear purpost anymt daa derrwms wen =gA9d ham sarlous vm=. Spatial idortretlon wW not moat Nalaral Mapping A=m Staidards. Ths Ydom - ff be updreed. wreded or at>erwtse rtn�tlad wRtwtt nMicstim. For adMond Mbmudon about ttis d+n the OtrMic Nakrtat Forest. Map 16 - Riparian Reserve LEGEND NWFP Riparian Reserve N N National Forest Bdy. 1 0 1 2 Miles The Farrar Savim rama amre de mbbay or KAIbmty of WS hfomodm for a partfahr purpaae. Qd*W dta danawa wen oo r9w tram rufous 30umm. Spatial Mortrotlan may trot mad Natlad Ihppinq Acarsry Stam>ards. Tres idom»<lon rtay Da upCUed cm, ad or ahendsa modbad WOW nallkrian. For add lonal nfomolon about tNa data oar W the Omit Raw, Forest. 96-09.21 ham pltrlprf.arre by s�C