HomeMy WebLinkAbout1996 Freshwater Habitat Conditions Affecting Coho Salmonr-
� 7
Freshwater Habitat Conditions Affecting
Strait of Juan de Fuca Populations
of Coho Salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch)
Report to the
Pacific Fisheries Management Council
June 1996
Michael L. McHenry
Fisheries Habitat Bioloaist
Lower Elwha Klallam Tribe �(LEKT)
2997 Lower Elwha Road
Port Angeles, Washington 98363
INTRODUCTION
The Strait of Juan de Fuca (SJF) region encompasses an area of
some 1,500 mil along the North Olympic Peninsula (Figure 1). The
region includes a diversity of watersheds that support anadromous
salmon, ranging in size from the 335 mi' Elwha River, to several
watersheds less than 10 mil. The majority of these systems support
sympatric populations of coho, chum salmon, and winter -run
steelhead. The two largest rivers, Elwha and Dungeness, are
heavily impacted by hydro - modifications, and are managed primarily
for hatchery production of coho. The remainder of SJF streams are
currently managed for wild coho production'.
Coho production has been chronically low for the region as a
whole. A wild escapement goal of 11,900 fish was established by
fishery managers in 1983, and has only reached 700 of the goal in
one year. As a result, Strait of Juan de Fuca (SJF) coho
Populations have been identified by the Pacific Fisheries
Management Council (PFMC) as "chronically under escapement goals ".
The Council is concerned about the effect of ocean fisheries,
habitat conditions and hatchery practices on such stocks. As part
Of its biennial review process, the PFMC has ordered a
comprehensive status review of SJF coho.
This report summarizes the pertinent habitat issues that
affect SJF coho salmon during their freshwater life history. The
report is divided into three sections: 1) A introduction to the
watersheds and description of the characteristics that affect
natural production, 2) A summary of coho salmon life history and
comparison with actual habitat conditions available in the SJF, and
3) a life history model developed from two SJF watersheds to
quantify production losses.
Almost every stream in the SJF has a history of our-planting
non - native stocks (WDFW et al. 1994). However, because of low
survival rates, the suspected effects of off
likely low.
- station releases is
1
SJF WATERSHED CONDITIONS
Geology
The geologic history of the Olympic Peninsula is complex and
involves rock formations derived from the ocean floor. The
collision of continental and oceanic plates provided the necessary
forces for the uplifting of marine sedimentary (peripheral) and
basalt (core) deposits that formed the Olympic Mountains (Tabor &
Cady 1975) . The Olympics were subsequently modified by both
continental and alpine glaciation. The most recent glaciation
began during the Pleistocene era, when at least 6 separate lobes of
the Cordilleran ice sheet invaded Puget Sound (Tabor 1987). This
event', which shaped many present -day features of the region
including Puget Sound, Hood Canal and the Strait of Juan de Fuca
ended approximately 12,000 ybp2. The period immediately following
deglaciation was likely unfavorable for salmonids, as climatic and
watershed conditions were highly unstable (Benda et al. 1993).
Around 4500 ybp, climatic conditions changed, becoming cooler and
wetter, allowing the proliferation of coniferous forests, which
stabilized watershed conditions, and ultimately salmon populations
(Chatters et al. 1995).
Hydrology
The most conspicuous hydrologic feature of the Olympic
Peninsula is the radial drainage pattern of its 11 major river
systems that originate off the core Olympic Mountains. With
elevations to 8000', the high Olympics directly intercept Pacific
storms, and receive more rainfall than any other place in
conterminous United States. Of the large river systems, only the
Elwha and Dungeness drain directly to the SJF. Both rivers have
been influenced by alpine glaciation, and receive significant
snowpack at higher elevations. As a result, bimodal discharae
peaks (one in winter associated with precipitation events, and
another in spring /summer asscciated with snowmelt) are obser-red n
'years before present
2
PamM;, y State
Hoko River of
S7RA1T OF Washington
_ Pysht River JUAN DE FUC1
1 Call B,,, - Ba L.ocaticn Map
- Lyre River
flwha River
Ozette Lake r ¢ Dan encss River
- - - _ � —� Pat Atteeles �� l •'
• _ _ ( • `-� Pon To«nsend i
Lake Ctescertt
Pfil.Y7 _ -- .. •rll�
OCEAN - _ 'l o Quilcene /I
Legend _ :.., { 1133 j
I • Cities / Tomru _ - r� 2�•''
Rims / So =eazTls
Glaciers National Pant
oa �
Glaciers / Snowhelds -
1
4.5 0 4.5 Miles °
TIVS<X=scales rmncioonibioi:= iioti.000
Sde i 'M.1 0 14ujoa,orc WayV t2um 4abv _
Quu>attlt Lakes t LakeCttsfmntti }}
�f
Figure 2. Strait of Juan de Fuca Region, Olympic Peninsula,
Washington.
3
the hydrograph. Flow patterns in combination with watershed size,
and habitat diversity have allowed for a diversity of salmon
species (pink, chum, coho, spring Chinook, summer steelhead) not
observed in the smaller SJF watersheds.
Hydrologic characteristics of the remaining SJF watersheds are
influenced by their position in relation to the rainshadow of the
Olympic Mountains. Watersheds located on the leeward side of the
Olympics may have extremely low annual precipitation levels. For
example, totals as low 15" \year are recorded in the Dungeness
Valley, near Sequim. Water production per unit area in this
portion of the SJF is more similar to that of southern Oregon or
Northern California (Lichatowich 1993a). These conditions present
a higher risk of local extinction in the SJF, similar to those seen
for salmon stocks at the geographical extremes of their natural
distribution.
Precipitation increases dramatically along a westerly gradient
in the SJF and annual precipitation averages over 100" \year near
Cape Flattery. Streamflow patterns in this portion of the SJF are
similar to those found on the non - glaciated streams of the Olympic
coast. Peak discharges during winter freshets. The western SJF is
located within one of the highest runoff yield zones in western
Washington (Naiman et al. 1992). Peak flows recorded for the Hoko
River are 2 -3 times those of the Dungeness River, a watershed that
is 4 times larger than the Hoko. Hydrologic stress on bioioaical
systems are extremely high in the SJF and multiple flood events
occur annually. Summer flows tend to be naturally low, as 1itt?e
snow accumulation occurs in these low elevation systems.
vegetation
Rainfall patterns, as affected by the Olt,,npic rainshadowa, have
heavily influenced vegetation patterns in the SJF. Clima::
vegetation communities are general!% dominated by con - serous
forests (Franklin & Dyrness 1984). Biomass of organic mazer-J.-.1
(both standing and dead) may be enormous in unmanaged forests. T::
lower rainfall areas of the SJF, mature forests are dominared b-
4
Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and western Hemlock (Tsuga
heterophylla). In the western SJF, beginning around Deep Creek,
vegetation becomes transitional, with proportionally greater
amounts of Sitka spruce (Picea stichensis) and western red -Cedar
(Thuja plicata). Historically, large openings supporting prairie
vegetation communities, were maintained through the use of fire by
native Americans (Gorsline 1993). These areas have been largely
destroyed by agriculture and development. Disturbances to native
forest communities (logging, fire) have resulted in large areas of
the riparian landscape being dominated by monotvpic stands of red
alder (Alnus rubra).
Land Uses /An thropogenic Impacts
The SJF region includes a variety of land uses that have
affected coho salmon production. Human activities in riparian
zones, floodplains, and cumulative effects at the watershed level
in the Pacific Northwest, have led to the simplification and
fragmentation of salmon habitat (Seddell & Everest 1991; Frissell
1993) . Such activities may affect a given habitats productivity or
destroy its connectivity to other unaffected habitats within a
watershed.
Although nearly one million acres of the Olympic Peninsula is
federally protected by Olympic National Park (ONP), ONP currently
affords relatively little protection for SJF salmon populations'.
The Park is centered around the mountainous interior of the
Olympics and the upper river valleys of its major rivers. During
ONP' s creation, the majority of low elevation, old- growth timber
was excluded from its boundaries. As a result, almost all of the
smaller SJF watersheds and much of the most productive low
elevation fish habitats have been subjected to various land uses.
3A significant portion of Morse Creek above the limits of
anadromous salmon is within Olympic National Park. Onlv the
extreme headwaters of the Dungeness River are located within ONP.
Over 80% of the E1wha River watershed is located within the ONP,
however, mainstem dams prevent access at river mile 4.9 and 12.0.
5
The original old- growth stands of timber have been removed and are
managed by large industrial timber owners as forest plantations.
Logging
In the Pacific Northwest, logging practices have historically
been conducted without regards to fisheries resources. Logging
began in the middle part of the nineteenth century in the eastern
SJF and in the early portion of the twentieth century in the
western SJF. Initial entries were associated primarily with
waterborne transportation routes; shoreline and river valleys were
logged first. To facilitate log transport, stream channels were
cleaned of woody debris. Railroad logging was introduced to the
Peninsula around 1915. Railroad spurs were usually constructed
through the larger river valleys and their larger tributaries.
By the 1940's, truck logging became the dominant technique.
Extensive road networks were constructed in steeper, upper
watershed areas, allowing access to previously inaccessible old -
growth forests. Road building techniques were primitive, and these
practices left a legacy of accelerated landslides. For example, in
Deep Creek a total of 134 landslides were documented between 1971-
1991 (Shaw 1995). At least 335 landslides were inventoried from
the available air photo record in the Hoko River (Pentec 1995).
By the 1970, s, the conversion of the regions original old -
growth forests to tree farms was complete. The vast majority of
the regions forests are now dominated by young age- classes of
trees. Road densities are often high (2 -5 mi;mi2), and logging
rotations typically are between 50 -65 years.
Agriculture
Agricultural development, though less widespread thar
forestry, has affected low - gradient habitats of the
SJF These
impacts include dredging, diking, and water removal. Streams with
the most severe impacts include the Clallam, Hoko and Dungeness
rivers, and Salt, Salmon, Snow and Chimacum creeks. For example,
the lower 2.0 miles of the Little Hoko River ha-:e been channelized
and cleaned of woody debris. Water withdrawals also impact several
SJF rivers. Over 400 miles of irrigation canals have been built in
the Dungeness valley. Surface water withdrawals on the Dungeness
River currently average about 600 of the rivers natural stream
flow. A total of 579 cfs could be legally removed from the
Dungeness River, even though the summer low flows average around
200 cfs.
Channelization /Urbanization
Population growth has also impacted coho salmon in the SJF.
Channelization and flood control efforts to accommodate flood plain
developments have severely altered the Dungeness River, Morse,
Salmon, Snow and Chimacum creeks. The majority of these activities
are historic, dating to the early part of the twentieth century
(Bahls & Rubin 1996) . Channelization isolates floodplain habitats
from mainstems, preventing coho salmon from reaching off - channel
rearing areas critical to over- winter survival. Channelization
also increases stream energy, resulting in loss of pool habitat and
coarsening of stream substrate. Channelization effects have been
exacerbated by the systematic removal of woody debris and loss of
riparian forests across the region. Dick Goin, a long -time
resident, offered a poignant description of the effects of
channelization on the Dungeness River (Lichatowich 1993b):
"One of the reasons I quit fishing the Dungeness River was the
bulldozers. The 1960s was the age of the bulldozers. Seems
like we would have a nice hole for fishing and then is would
be ground out by a bulldozer. When I came back 10 years later
the destruction was almost total. All the old structures were
gone. I think it was the mid -70s before there was an effort
to stop them. Incredible damage was done by then."
The combination of channelization and water withdrawals have
devastated Dungeness River coho populations. In terms of potencial
production, the Dungeness and its tributaries represent 1S.6a of
the total SJF smolt vield.
Urbanization, particularly around Port Angeles, has impacted
six small independent tributaries to the SJF: Morse, Lees, Ennis,
7
Peabody, Valley, Tumwater, and Dry creeks. Impacts to habitat in
these streams are so severe that coho have been either extirpated
or support only small remnant populations. Stormwater runoff in
combination with stream channelization, passage limitations and
stream cleanout have altered habitat in these systems (Clallam
County 1993).
Dams
Hydroelectric development is limited in the region and has
affected the Elwha River in the SJF'. Mainstem dams were
constructed on river mile 4.9 in 1914, and river mile 12.0 in 1925.
Both facilities were constructed without passage facilities. This
action has prevented coho salmon from accessing 42.9 miles of
mainstem and 32.05 miles of tributary habitat, much of which is
pristine, located within Olympic National Park (FERC 1993).
Arguably, construction of the dams on the Elwha River has impacted
coho production in the SJF more than any other single human.
activity. The Elwha River and its tributaries represent 21.90 of
the total potential habitat area of the SJF based upon estimates of
accessible stream habitat alone (Zilges 1977; James River II 1988) .
Natural coho production in the Elwha is currently limited to a few
side - channels and spring -fed floodplain streams in the lower river.
A production coho hatchery has been constructed by the LEKT to
supplement the run.
Current Stock Status
Although hampered by a lack of historical data, assessments of
4A penstock diversion is operated by the City of Port Angeles
on Morse Creek. Water is diverted above an impassable wat`rfall
for power generation and flows back to the system 0.5 below the
fails.
SBased upon 1987 low flow s=.-evs (FERC 1993). Thew
estimates are considered cons ervacive of actual available tributary
habitat. The survey methodoloav appears to have omitted
sanificant reaches of small, low- gradient screams.
8
salmon stock status in the SJF have been made by McHenry et al.
(1996) , Huntington et al. (1995), WDFW et al. (1994) , Nehlsen et
al. (1993) and Lichatowich (1993a). These reports took somewhat
differing approaches to the problem of defining individual stocks
and stock status. For example, WDFW et al. (1994) assessed stock
health in terms of how short -term changes in escapement related to
currently available habitat quality. This approach led WDF et al.
(1994) to conclude a healthy status for the following SJF coho
stocks: Chimacum Creek, Salt Creek, and Hoko River. In contrast,
McHenry et al. (1996) used definitions of stock health based upon
life history strategies and minimum numbers required to prevent
gene introgression (WDFW In Preparation) , and found no healthy coho
stock in the SJF. Other authors reached similar conclusions
(Huntington et al. 1995; Lichatowich 1993a; Nehlsen et al. 1993).
TOTAL AVAILABLE STREAM HABITAT IN SJF
Estimates of total stream habitat in the SJF have been made by
Zillges (1977), who used the data in order to estimate coho smolt
production. Recent surveys by the LEKT indicate that these
estimates need to be updated, as there are significant errors with
regard to habitat availability. An updated estimate based upon
unpublished data provided by WDFW and the LEKT is given in Table 1.
Because stream productivity varies greatly in the Su'F, we assigned
a habitat quality index (poor, fair, good) to each watershed to
reflect these differences.
COHO SALMON LIFE HISTORY
. Coho salmon are impacted by habitat alterations or losses at-
various stages of their freshwater life history. Life history,
patterns of coho salmon in SJF are not well documented, but are
likely similar to coho salmon in other Washington streams. A
generalized life history includes the migration of adults to them
natal streams and spawning during October - January, egg deposition
in gravel nests or "redds ", emergence of _-ry in spring (March -June!
Table 1. Estimated accessible stream habitat to coho salmon b%.-
9
stream in the Strait of Juan de
Zillges (1977); Unpublished
Fuca Region,
Washington. Source:
Data
WDFW & LEKT.
Stream
Accessib a
Updated
Watershed
Length(mi)
Length(mi)
Production
( Zillges 1977)
(LEKT \WDF)
Rating
Chimacum Creek
12.0
12.0
Tributaries
10.5
8.0
Poor
Snow Creek
4.9
7.0
Fair
Tributaries
1.3
3.0
Poor
Salmon Creek
5.7
5.7
Fair
Tributaries
6.5
6.5
Poor
Discovery Bay Tribs.
6.9
6.9
Poor
Jimmycomelately Ck.
1.9
Poor
Sequim Bay Tribs.
6.0
1.9
Pair
Dungeness River
18.8
8.7
18.3
Poor
Tribs. to Dungeness
15.1
15.1
Poor
Gray Wolf River
9.6
9.6
Poor
Tribs. to Gray
Wolf 2.8
2.3
Good
McDonald Creek
5.2
S.,
Good
Tributaries
2.5
4•.
:air
Siebert Creek
8.5
8.5
Fair
Tributaries
2.0
3
Fair
Bagley Creek
1'2
-
1.4
Fair
Morse Creek
Poor
Pt. Angeles Streams
.9
13.6
4.9
1.2
p oor
Elwha River
4'9
Poor
Colville Creek
1'S
4 4.9
Poor
Salt Creek
6.5
9"
5
=air
Tributaries
6.3
10.0-
Good
Whiskey Creek
4.3
Good
Tributaries
4.0
1.0
2.J
:air
Field Creek
Lvre River
2.8
2•�
Pair
Tributaries
4'0
2.3
Coca
Murdock Creek
4
Good
East Twin River
7
2.5
Good
Tributaries
9.6
3
8.9
Good
West Twin River
4.2
4.2
Good
Tributaries
4'1
6
Good
Deep Creek
Good
Tributaries,
�:�
Poor
Joe Creek
i.6
"
c-
Jim Creek
3.6
1
Fair
-
But' -er Creek
4. -
Poor
Pvsht River
__
i6.3
-
14.E
Fair
Tributaries
ailam River
24.3
2z "
=air
Gocc
Tributaries
11.0
11.
rater
goko River
19.2
23 s
20 -;
Good
Tributaries
40.9
23.-*
43 -
Sakiu River
3.3
3
Goca
Tributaries
i5 5
Occr
J
Olsen Creek
Poor
Jansen Creek
0 �
Fa =r
- F
Rasmussen Creek 2':
ai r
Bull -man Creek } , -
Tributari -s =a ==
Snow Creek
Sail River
Aaencv Creek _ --
Vilaae Creek
Acc . `^.ainstem
ACC. Trio. Length
TOTAL �3;• ___.-
and residence in stream h- abitats for z Year or more. Mizrati:;a
10
smolts enter saltwater the following spring and may remain in
the vicinity of their river of origin for several months (Pearcy &
Fisher 1986). The ocean migration period may last 18 months or
more. Based upon tag recoveries, SJF coho migrate northward as far
as Alaska. During this migration, coho are subjected to mixed -
stock sport and commercial fisheries. Of significance to SJF coho,
are troll and gill -net fisheries off the west coast Vancouver
Island (WCVI) .
There are currently no comprehensive studies of coho
productivity in freshwater for any single watershed on the SJF.
There are, however, aspects of their life history which have been
studied in various watersheds. The approach in this section was to
use the most current data available to describe factors limiting
coho production in the SJF from a regional standpoint.
Adult Migration
Coho salmon accessing spawning areas face considerable
migrational barriers in the SJF. Highway construction, logging
roads, and hydroelectric dams are the most easily quantified
impacts. Other potential hindrances include sediment filled
channels, invasion of exotic aquatic and semi - aquatic plants, and
loss of step -pool profile in upper channel networks from
landslides. Such impacts are often subtle, and the severity
effect may be dependent on interaction with flow regimes, run
timing and run duration. As a result, many impacts are
unquantified.
H_ydroe l ectri c Dams
From an areal perspective, construction of two mainst`m
hydroelectric dams on the Elwha River has had the most significant
impact on coho production in the SJF Yegion. The dams had a
devastating impact on coho salmon of the Elwha, 'limiting production
to just the lower 4.9 miles of the river. Subseauen—_
channel ization, fluctuations in flow regime, cessation of the
11
recruitment of gravel and woody debris has further degraded the
productive capacity of the remaining habitat below the dams.
The construction and operation of the Elwha dams and their
effect on anadromous fish has a long history of controversy
(Johnson 1995). During the 1980s, licensing of both facilities by
the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) had become
extremely contentious and protracted, as various interest groups
asserted legal, social and environmental arguments concerning the
future of the dams. In an effort to resolve the dispute, Congress
passed the Elwha River Ecosystem and Fisheries Restoration :tct (PL
102 -495. Signed in 1992 by President Bush, the act represents a
negotiated settlement that protects the interests of the dam
owners, municipal and industrial water users, Indian Tribes and
Olympic National Park. The act authorizes the Secretary of the
Interior to acquire and remove both projects if necessary to fully
restore the ecosystem. The Secretary has concluded that removal of
both dams is the only alternative that can achieve the goal of full
restoration of the Elwha ecosystem and native anadromous fish (Doi
et al. 1994; NPS 1995).
The Elwha River is by far the largest (335 mil) river system
in the SJF, and potentially the most productive. Over 800 of the
drainage is located within the boundaries of Olympic National Park
and is considered pristine habitat. It is estimated that 42.9
miles of mainstem and 32.0 miles of tributaries could be made
accessible to coho salmon (DOI et al. 1995; James River II
Potential coho production in a free - flowing Elwha River has been
estimated at 248,964 smolts! year (FERC 1988) . In a f,a; lv
producing SJF ( Elwha included) , this represents 35.9% of -"= total
coho smolt production. In the currently degraded SJF, Elwha smolt
Production would represent 6�.4% of the total smolt vie d.
Urrbanizat4on 1Highwav Cons on
Historic road construction practices, esnec; all•.• stY -an,
crossings, involving the installat_on of culverts with de=_c -f-11S
has .affected streams throuaheut the 3J . The state hian.,rav s%stenl
12
that circumnavigates the Olympic Peninsula (Highways 101 and 112)
crosses every tributary to the SJF at least once. A recent
inventory conducted by WDFW revealed the extent of the problem
(Table 2). In addition to Highway crossings, urban development
has affected coho salmon access to seven streams (Tumwater, Valley,
Peabody, Ennis, White, Lees, and the East Fork Lees creek) in the
Port Angeles urban area. These systems are affected by either
impassible culverts, long reaches of underground culvert (up to
20001) or combinations of both. Access to these small tributaries
is further compromised by the quality of available habitat which
has been degraded by stormwater runoff, channelization, loss of
woody debris, and estuary filling. Port Angeles harbor, once one
of the largest natural estuaries in the SJF, has been completely
altered to accommodate deep water shipping and industrial
development.
Sediment - Vegetation -Flow Interactions
Accelerated sedimentation from a variety of land uses, can
interact with channel conditions, vegetation, and flow to inhibit
coho salmon access. In the eastern portion of the SJF flow
characteristics are strongly influenced by the rainshadow of the
Olympic Mountains. Rainfall in this region may be 10 -200 of that
received in the western SJF. As a result, stream power is
proportionally less. In low gradient channels, inorganic sediment
may be stored in excess of the streams ability to transport.
Increases in channel sediment are manifested by increases in
channel bar area, channel meandering, and riffle crest height.
During low flow periods (either natural and /or exacerbated by water
:withdrawals), adult migration may be precluded. In the SJF, this
has been documented for early spawning species such as summer chum
(Salmon, Snow, Jimmycomelately Creeks) and fall chinook (Hoke
River). Since coho salmon have a later run timing and presumab';f
a higher probability of accessing spawning grounds during freshets,
the magnitude of this problem is uncertain. However, this effect
13
Table 2. Inventory of impassable and partially passable culverts
on Highway 101 and 112 on the Strait of Juan de Fuca, Washington.
Source: WDFW (Unpublished Data).
Stream Highway %Passable Comments
Peabody
101
0
1.7 Miles Blocked
4.0 Miles Blocked
2.5 Miles Blocked
White
101
0
Lees
101
0
Bagley
101
0
4.5 Miles Blocked
Gierin
101
0
3 Miles Blocked by
Tide Gate
3 Miles Blocked
3 Miles Blocked
Johnson
101
0
Chicken Coop
101
0
Eagle
101
20
1 Mile Blocked
Contractors
101
0
0.5 Mile Blocked
2.5 Miles Blocked
1.0 Mile Blocked
1.5 Mile Blocked
Rasmussen
112
0
Butler
112
20
Joe
112
60
Nelson
112
0
0.5 Mile Blocked
2.5 Miles Blocked
Limited Habitat Above
Field
112
40
Whiskey
112
60
Salt Tributary
112
50
Bear Creek
Salt Tributary
112
s0
Unnamed easterly_
Tributary
Colville
112
<100
Tributaries to
Clallam
112
0
(Tributaries
Two Unnamed
Tributary to Pysht
112
60
i
Tributaries to
Pvsht
112
0
('Tributaries
Two Unnamed
may artificially narrow run timing.
Colonization of stream channels 'ov the invasive e -c-4 . re_
canary grass h has bee :, documented as _z
g (P alaris alterr._rlor ` , o��
significant problem for salmon on the O1�,-mn4c Peninsula (Personal
14
Communication, Jerry Gorsline, Washington Native Plant Society) .
Reed canary grass can form dense mats, clogging channels and in
some cases, impeding the passage of salmon. The inlet and outlet
of Crocker Lake, which flows into Snow Creek, was recently cleared
of reed canary grass by Jefferson County restoration groups.
Infestations have also been reported in Ozette Lake, Chimacum Creek
and tributaries to the Dungeness River. Human activities such as
channelization, agriculture clearing and removal of riparian
vegetation appear to create ideal conditions for reed canary grass
blooms. Bahls & Rubin (1996) found that in Chimacum Creek, Reed
Canary Grass respired carbon dioxide at night, depressing dissolved
oxygen levels to in some instances <5 mg /L.
In t ergravel Environment
Coho salmon eggs may experience considerable natural mortality
within gravel constructed redds, even in pristine habitats. Winter
freshets can scour redds. Fine sediments can be mobilized and
deposited into gravel interstitial spaces, smothering eggs or
decreasing oxygen transportation. Redds may be constructed in
marginal spawning areas during high flows, only to be de- watered
when flows recede. Estimates of mortality due to natural
incubation conditions are variable, depending upon rearing
conditions, and range from Oo to 850 (Sandercock 1991). Human
activities may further increase mortality rates for incubating
eggs. For SJF coho, scour and increased sedimentation have been
identified as the most critical factors limiting coho spawning
success (Williams et al. 1975; McHenry et al. 1994; WDFW et a1.
1994; McHenry et al. 1996).
Fine Sediment
Elevated fine sediments ( <0.85 mm) in spaning gravel are
known to decrease survival of developing salmonid eggs in the
intergravel environment. In western Washington, fine sediment
levels over 12-0s (by volume) are generally considered detrimental to
15
developing salmonid embryos (Peterson et al. 1993) . In the SJF,
spawning gravel quality has been assessed in several watersheds,
including the Sekiu, Pysht, Hoko and Clallam Rivers and Deep,
Siebert, and McDonald Creeks. Results of theses studies generally
show moderate to high levels of fine sediment (Table 4). A
comparison of these values to estimates of survival obtained from
egg survival studies in laboratory and natural environments
indicates low predicted survival of eggs to the alevin and emergent
fry stages in SJF streams.
An in -situ test of coho salmon survival using egg- baskets and
constructed redds (Burton et al. 1991) was conducted in the Hoko
and Pysht River drainages between 1991 -93 (McHenry et al. 1994) .
Results showed very low survival of coho eggs in the Pysht River
(average of 2.80 to eyed stage and <10 to alevin) . Survival of
coho eggs was higher, though variable (range 0 -580, average 25.7%)
in the Hoko River. Survival was neither correlated with various
measures of substrate quality (fine sediment, geometric mean
particle size) , nor inter- gravel dissolved oxygen levels. However,
at fine sediment levels >130, nearly 100% mortality was observed.
This implies the existence of a threshold above which complete
mortality occurs. The authors also observed significant bedload
scour and fill events and hypothesized that channel stability was
a significant factor affecting early life history survival.
Channel Scour Processes
Scour of spawning gravel has been frequently observed during
peak flow events in Pacific Northwest streams (Lisle 1989; Nawa et
al. 1990). Scour events are difficult to predict, and their
effects on salmonids are related to a number of physical an
biological factors including: 1) depth of egg deposition (related
to body size) , 2) spawning timing, 3) magnitude and duration of
flood flows, 4) size and quantity of bedload material, and
channel characteristics (Schuett -Names e?- al. 109 =). lr,
16
Table 4. Fine sediment levels ( <0.85 mm) in spawning gravels
reported for Strait of Juan de Fuca tributaries.
Stream % Finea
intensively managed watersheds, land management practices have
resulted in conditions ideal for scour (i.e. increases in sediment
yield, loss of LWD, increases in peak flow runoff).
In the SJF, data on channel bed scour has been collected on
the Dungeness and Pysht Rivers. During the winter of 1994 -95,
Orsborn & Ralph (1995) placed 29 scour monitors (chains) at 16
locations in the mainstem Dungeness River. Twelve of the scour
chains were placed adjacent to recently constructed pink and
Chinook salmon redds. As part of a chinook restoration project,
each chinook redd was later pumped of alevins, in order to collect
fry for a captive brood -stock program. Of the twelve redds where
monitors were installed, five showed evidence of substantial scour
(4 -40 cm), while four were buried under bedload. Subsequent
information provided by the Washington Department of Fish and
Wildlife (WDFW) confirmed that only one chinook redd yielded anv_
viable alevins. Orsborn & Ralph (1995) concluded:
17
"chinook and pink salmon redds in the lower 10.8 miles are
largely unsuccessful because the locations chosen for redd
construction appear to scour deeply at even moderate flow
events"
Because coho salmon utilize both mainstems and tributaries for
spawning, a discussion of channel bed stability in small streams is
pertinent. Between 1989 -91, cross - sectional profile, thalweg
depth and scour monitors were installed at 9 sites in the Pysht
River. Sites selected included both mainstem (6) and tributaries
(3). Results showed significant bedload movements: aggradation or
degradation of >0.33 m was observed at 15 of 27 sites (Unpublished
Data, University of Washington). Schuett -Names et al. (1995),
based upon literature values, recommended that for medium - bodied
salmon (such as coho), the mean egg pocket depth averaged 0.16 m.
Similar bed instability was observed throughout the Hoko River
basin during the early life history studies conducted by McHenry et
al. (1994) .
Winter Temperature
Altered thermal regimes have been documented in numerous SJF
streams during summer and are suspected in winter. Long -term
studies in low elevation coastal watersheds of British Columbia
have shown that elevated winter temperatures are an outcome of
intensive logging (Hartman & Scrivener 1990) . Elevated winter
temperatures has been shown to advance embryo development,
resulting in earlier emergence timing, and ultimately earlier smolt
outmigration. In the Carnation Creek, British Columbia study, coho
reached a counting fence about two weeks earlier after the
watershed was logged. Holtby (1988) found that the marine survival
of early migrating smolts was reduced following loaaina presumably
, p
because of asynchronous timing between marine food resources and
coho smolts. Although advancement of out«igration timing has not
been reported in the SJF (or elsewhere in the Pacific Northwest),
this effect may be significant, as biotic and abiotic conditions _D::
SJF watersheds are very similar to those of Carnation Cree4_.
W
First: Year Parr
Coho fry that successfully emerge from the intergravel
environment in spring, seek refuge in stream margin and backwater
habitats. As coho parr grow larger, they typically search for pool
habitats which contain suitable depth, cover and flow conditions.
Flow and pool area are important factors regulating survival for
summer parr. Quantity of flow directly limits available stream
area for coho rearing. This relationship is particularly strong
for Puget Sound coho stocks, as long -term smolt trapping has shown
that smolt production is positively correlated with indices of
summer flow.
Coho parr are strongly territorial and aggressively defend
favorable rearing sites. Pool size appears to be more critical
than pool type during summer. In coastal Oregon streams, coho
appear to utilize almost all pool types equally during the summer
(Nickelson et al. 1992). In forested streams of the Pacific
Northwest, pool forming processes are dominated by the interaction
of hydrologic forces and channel obstructions. A constant supply
of Large Woody Debris (LWD) is particularly important for the
maintenance of pool features used by coho salmon.
In unmanaged streams, volumes of down woody debris may be
prodigious. Human activities, particularly logging, cedar salvage
and channelization have dramatically altered the dynamic balance of
LWD in streams (NRC 1995). The original old growth coniferous
forests have been eliminated from SJF watersheds. Riparian
buffers, have only recently been implemented (1982) on state and
private timberlands in Washington State. As a result, every
watersheds in the SJF has been logged without any buffers at least
once. Current state riparian standards do not provide adequate
recruitment of LWD. Not only have the overall volumes of instream
wood been reduced, but the composition has been converted from
decay resistant coniferous species to more fragile deciduous
species.
Historic logging practices, in combination with a lack, of
19
reforestation, have left a legacy of riparian forests dominated by
early successional species such as red alder (Alnus rubra). Pre -
settlement riparian forests on the SJF were characterized by
relatively sparse densities (20 -50 trees /acre) of large conifers
(Pentec 1995). Analysis of current riparian conditions on the
S.F. Pysht (Unpublished Data, LEKT) and Hoko Rivers (Pentec 1995)
showed that 98% and 930, respectively, of the riparian forest was
dominated by red alder. These stands are characterized by high
densities (100 -400 trees /acre) of small - diameter trees, often in
association with dense under - stories of brush (i.e. salmonberry),
that may preclude or delay the development of late - successional
vegetation communities.
Probably one of the greatest changes wrought on Pacific
Northwest streams by man's activities (and the most significant for
coho salmon) is the systematic loss of LWD (NRC 1995). Recent
research has elucidated the importance of LWD for habitat
formation, sediment storage and floodplain processes (Bisson et al.
1987) . In streams draining urlogged old- growth forests, the volume
of down debris interacting with stream channels was large (Maser et
al. 1988). Grette (1985) found that in unlogged streams of the
Olympic Peninsula LWD averaged 89 m3 /100m of stream. Peterson et
al. (1993) recommended debris loading of 2 -4 pieces /channel width
for western Washington streams. In SJF streams, LWD levels are
typically very low (Table 5) , and continue to decline. In a
survey of 28 Olympic Peninsula streams (including 6 in the SJF)
between 1982 -93, McHenry et a_'. (In Preparation) found that total
LWD volumes had declined by an average of 25.90 (Figure ?1. The
average volume of LWD in 1993 was 49.80 less than the volume found
in seven unmanaged streams during 1983. LWD depl`t;cn has
implications to stream stabili:_ (scour issues) , summer and :.Tinter
rearina.
20
120
100
80
a
60
40
20
140
120
100
a 80
>' 60
40
20
1_
n
Total Volume of LNVD
1982 Group
U = Unlogged
Y = Young Sec: Growth ■ O
M = Middle -Aged Sec. -Growth
O = Old Sec: Growth
1993 > 1982 /
1982 = 1993
■/E
0
■ �1 O
■O %U
■O ■Y N 0 N
O
n a
M t 'i ■Y 0
■h0U
a hi
1982 > 1993
■U ■U
40 60 80 100 120
Year 1982
no
Total Number of LIVD Pieces
a n
1993 > I982 ■
■Y
■U M
O y
no U 'Y
■ R1
no ■nl
■Y ■h'Y ■U
I`i
1982 > 1993
IU
no ■U no
1982 Group
U = Unlogged
Y = Young Sec. -Growth
M = Middle-Aged Sec. -Growth
O =Old Sec.-Growth
:.v 40 60 80 100 120
Year 1982
Figure 2. Decadal changes in LWD volume for 28 Olympic Peninsula
streams, 1982 -1993. From McHenry et al. (in Preparation).
21
Table 5. Measures of Large Woody Debris loading found in
watersheds of the Strait of Juan de Fuca, Washington.
Stream # Pieces/ Volume/
inn m Inn
_
From the standpoint of salmon ecology, current riparian
forests function differently from the conditions encountered in
old- growth forests. Contribution of nutrients, thermal rea4mes,
and interactions between floodplain and river habitats have been
altered over historic conditions. For example, research has shoven
that nutrient inputs to streams bordering old growth forests are
different from forests that have been logged (Bilbv & Bisson
The implications of these changes to species such as coho sa-Imcn
that have changing spatial and temporal habitat requirements are
not fully understood at this time.
Summer rearing habitat for first year parr has been measured
in several SJF watersheds (Table 6 ) . Indices of summer a
habitat quality indicate that summer rearing areas are gen =-ral -
low, though variable. In y N
e systems that ha-� e been hea���ily
22
S.F. Pysht River
27.4
30.6
LEKT (Unpub. Data)
Deep Creek
7.5
11.4
LEKT (Unpub. Data)
Hoko River
13.5
- --
Pentec (1995)
Little Hoko
River
9.1
10.3
LEKT (Unpub. Data)
Chimacum Creek
4.3
- --
Bahls & Rubin (1996)
PNPTC (Unpub. Data)
Snow Creek
6.2
- --
Dungeness River
2.8
- --
Orsborn & Ralph
(1994)
LEKT (Unpub. Data)
Siebert Creek
3.1
- --
Pysht River
18.0
9.8
LEKT (Unpub. Data)
Pysht
Tributaries
22.8
11.8
LEKT (Unpub. Data)
AVERAGE
11.5
14.8
From the standpoint of salmon ecology, current riparian
forests function differently from the conditions encountered in
old- growth forests. Contribution of nutrients, thermal rea4mes,
and interactions between floodplain and river habitats have been
altered over historic conditions. For example, research has shoven
that nutrient inputs to streams bordering old growth forests are
different from forests that have been logged (Bilbv & Bisson
The implications of these changes to species such as coho sa-Imcn
that have changing spatial and temporal habitat requirements are
not fully understood at this time.
Summer rearing habitat for first year parr has been measured
in several SJF watersheds (Table 6 ) . Indices of summer a
habitat quality indicate that summer rearing areas are gen =-ral -
low, though variable. In y N
e systems that ha-� e been hea���ily
22
Table 6. Indices of first year parr summer rearing habitat for
coho salmon, Strait of Juan de Fuca Region, Washington.
STREAM
MEAN
MEAN
DATA
POOL
POOL
SOURCES
AREA
DEPTH
M
(m)
Hoko River
39.2
0.53
Pentech (1995)
Hoko Tributaries
38.7
0.63
Elwha Klallam Tribe
SF Pysht River
Pysht Tributaries
42.8
0.72
42.7
0.63
(Unpublished Data)
McHenry et al. (1995)
Deep Creek
46.6
0.70
Morse Creek
12.0
- - --
Peninsula College
(Unpublished Data)
Snow Creek
37.5
0.44
Rowse (In Preparation)
Siebert Creek
29.6
- - --
LEKT (Upub. Data)
McDonald Creek
34.5
- - --
PNPTC (1996)
JimmyComeLately Ck.
10.4
- - --
Donald (1993)
Chimacum Creek
49.6
0.51
Bahls & Rubin (1996)
AVERAGE
34.8
0.59
channelized or managed for agricultural uses, pool habitat has
largely been eliminated (i.e. Morse & Chimacum creeks) . In streams
draining watersheds managed for forestry, pool habitat persists,
though below levels found in unmanaged forests. Peterson et al.
(1993) recommended a threshold of 50o for pool habitat in low -
gradient western Washington streams. Pool quality in SJF streams
indicates relatively homogenous conditions: available pools are
typically shallow ( <1.0 m) depth and lacking in complex cover.
These conditions aPPear to be related to pool filling as a result
of accelerated sedimentation. Shaw (1903) found through a sediment
budget analysis in Green Creek, a tributary of the Pysht River,
that 85 -940 of the sediments resulting from mass- wasting in the
1960 -1970s were still stored within the valley floor. Green Creek
has.downcut through these deposits (0.5 -4.0 m depth) and is
23
currently releasing fine sediments to the channel at a rate of 131
M'/km2/yr. This represents a persistent source of fine sediment.
Since summer carrying capacity is related to pool volume, loss of
depth represents a significant loss of available space.
The quality of summer rearing habitat is also affected by
thermal regime. Research indicates that summer temperatures
between 12 -14 °C are optimal for juvenile coho (Brett 1956; Reiser
1979). Temperatures exceeding 20 -25 °C may cause both direct and
indirect mortality for coho salmon (Brett 1956). Stream
temperatures are affected by both natural conditions (average
watershed elevation, aspect, groundwater influences) and
anthropomorphic alterations (removal of riparian vegetation,
channelization, stream widening). Temperature regime in SJF
streams is highly stream, and even reach specific, making
generalizations difficult. In streams draining lands managed for
agriculture, thermal regime may be substantially altered.
Agricultural practices such as riparian clearing, stream
channelization, and surface and groundwater extraction, may
exacerbate flow conditions during summer. Data collected from
lowland, agricultural streams in the SJF show that summer
temperatures may reach levels detrimental to juvenile coho salmon.
During 5 years of summer stream temperature monitoring in Chimacum
Creek, Bahls & Rubin (1996) consistently found summer temperatures
ranging from 14- 21.5 °C. Jones & Stokes (1991) reported the maximum
temperatures for Snow Creek between June and September as 19.3,
20.3, 20.3, and 18.1 °C. Data from lowland western SJF streams
indicates similar summer temperature patterns (Unpublished Data,
Lower Elwha Klallam Tribe).
Win cer Parr
With the onset of winter, juvenile coho migrate dorr.stream
seeking habitats that provide refuge from winter freshets.n
contrast to summer habitat, winter habitat types vary in their
ability to support coho parr (Nickelson et al. 1992), Off - Channel
24
habitats such as side - channels, alcoves, wall -based channels, and
beaver dams represent ideal areas for winter rearing from a
metabolic standpoint: Off- channel habitats have high food
production, and require less energy expenditure than other
habitats. Because off - channel areas are usually associated with
low gradient alluvial valleys, they have also been subjected to a
proportionally higher level of human development. These areas were
typically the first to be cleared for agriculture, human settlement
and subsequent flood control efforts (Seddell & Froggart 1984).
In the SJF, loss of over - wintering habitat is a significant
problem for coho salmon. Historic losses are only available for
Chimacum Creek, where Bahls & Rubin (1996) estimated that 970 of
the over - wintering rearing capability for coho had been lost since
pre - settlement times (1850s). Estimates of available present day
over - wintering habitat in other SJF streams indicates extremely low
numbers (Table 7).
Disconnection of flood plain habitats from mainstem rivers is
probably one of the most serious cumulative effects of man's
activities on fluvial systems. Because of the importance of these
habitats to coho salmon life history, protection of remaining
intact floodplains and restoration of disconnected floodplain
environments should be a high priority. Beechie et al. (1995)
found that loss of off - channel habitat, primarily because of
agricultural development was the most significant factor limiting
coho production in the Skagit River.
Smo1 tif.ication- Migration to Marine Wafers
Coho salmon that survive winter rearing conditions, undergo
the physiological preparation for the transition from freshwater to
marine environments (smoltification) . Smoltification is triggered
by changes in photoperiod and temperature. During this period coho
salmon are sensitive to chemicals commonly applied across the
landscape such as insecticides and herbicides. In the SJF,
25
Table 7. Estimates of currently available off - channel habitat as
a percentage of total available habitat types in Strait of Juan de
Fuca Tributarieq_ wa�r,;nnr�r
`Aerial
aAerial
photo`
estimates
STREAM
AVAILABLE
COMMENTS
estimates
estimates
OFF - CHANNEL
HABITAT ( %)
Snow Creek
0.7a
Channelized and cleared for
agriculture.
Dungeness
River
Lower 10.0 miles have been
- --
cleared and heavily diked
(4.5 miles) .
Morse Creek
0.0°
Lower 2.0 miles have been
cleared and Channelized.
Elwha River
10.0`
Dam construction, diking and
channelization has isolated
mainstem from floodplain.
Deep Creek
2.3'
Massive sedimentation from
logging, subsequent channel
widening have isolated
floodplain from mainstem.
Pysht River
<10.0e
Highway construction along
lower 8.5 miles of mainstem.
Little Hoko
River
3.6=
Channel downcutting to 4 m
in response to flood waves
from dam -break landslides.
Sekiu River
<5.09
Logging roads constructed
through lower 4.0 miles of
mainstem.
TT
3LP_S 1'P1 1 A oY' �1
� A[1 '1 nt •____
`Aerial
aAerial
photo`
estimates
dMcHenryJet�alac19g5enlnsuia College
3Aeriai
photo
photo
estimates
estimates
(Unpublished Data, Elwha Kiallam Tribe
herbicides such as glyphophospate are commonly used during spring
to suppress deciduous brush in recently planted clearcuts'.
Although herbicides are generally carefully applied, according to
manufacturers recommendations and current forest practice rules,
'This may be a problem throughout the range of coho salmon.
Along the entire Pacific Coast coho habitat an�est_ mated 150,O0p
pounds of 2,4 -0 were applied in 198% ;Pair 1992).
26
little is known about the potential acute or chronic affects of
such practices on juvenile coho (Grier et al. 1994).
Coho Salmon Life History Models
To facilitate the discussion of impacts to coho salmon during
freshwater residence, two simplified models that describe mortality
factors for coho salmon in freshwater were developed. Sufficient
data has been collected from a SJF streams to develop estimates of
the effects of habitat degradation on coho salmon. Two systems,
the Pysht River and Chimacum Creek, represent examples of the
different types of land management practices that occur in the SJF.
The case history for Chimacum is based upon a habitat restoration
assessment conducted by Bahls & Rubin (1996). The model for the
Pysht River is based upon basin wide habitat surveys conducted in
1993 (Unpublished Data, Elwha Klallam Tribe), assessments of
intergravel survival (McHenry et al. 1994) and streambed scour
(Unpublished Data, University of Washington- Center for Streamside
Studies) . Paradoxically, although these streams represent extremes
of hydrologic conditions encountered in the SJF, they share similar
impacts with regards to loss of over - wintering habitat. Conditions
encountered in Chimacum Creek are shared by roughly 2695 of the
stream mileage in the SJF, while those of the Pysht represent 620
of the total. The remainder of streams in the SJF (14') are
impacted by urbanization.
Chimacum Creek
Draining an area of 37 mil, Chimacum Creek is the largest and
most productive drainage in the Admiralty Inlet area of the eastern
SJF. The system is "Y" shaped, with the East and West Forks
flowing together to form the mainstem at river mile 3.0. Chimac'.:m
Creek is located in the Olympic rainshadew and recei• ✓es about
22" /year of precipitation. All land adjacent to Chimacum Creek is
Privately owned. Land uses include forestry in headwaters areas
and extensive agricultural development along low - gradient
27
alluviated portions of the mainstem and lower East and West Forks.
Chimacum Creek historically supported runs of coho, summer
chum salmon, and steelhead. Summer chum are extirpated from the
basin (Lichatowich 1993a). Coho salmon are considered threatened
with a total run size of <250 fish (Bahls & Rubin 1996; McHenry et
al. 1996). Historical estimates of coho escapement, through
anecdotal observations are estimated at 1000 -2000 fish (Bahls &
Rubin 1996) .
Although the Chimacum valley historically supported cedar and
spruce swamps, wet prairies and beaver ponds, most of the lowlands
were drained and converted to pasture at or before the turn of the
century. The area was settled beginning in the 1850's. Initial
development consisted primarily of logging and clearing in the
valley bottoms for homesteads. The surrounding hillsides were then
logged and roaded. Beginning in 1919, main stem and tributarvv
streams in the valley were channelized to drain agricultural land.
Ditching continued into the 1970's and reed canary grass was widely
introduced as forage for livestock.
These activities dramatically changed the habitat conditions
in Chimacum Creek (Figure 5) . Basin -wide surveys conducted by
biologists from the Port Gamble S'Klallam Tribe quantified the
extent of historical changes in the basin and related these to coho
freshwater life history:
* A 12% loss of spawning habitat due to impassable culverts.
General degradation of remaining spawning habitat due to
sedimentation.
* Summer rearing areas have been reduced by 945.. Water
temperatures between 16 -21 °C were recorded in all non - forested
reaches; dissolved oxygen levels <5 mg /L were recorded at four
sites. Because of degraded conditions, summer parr were
generally absent from extensive reaches of the West and East
Forks. Clearing, ditching, groundwater extraction, and
elimination of beaver have likely altered summer flow patterns
to the detriment of salmonids
* Because of these development activities, winter rearing areas
have been reduced by 97a. The majoritr of the drainage has
few or no instream LWD. Flooding may, strand juvenile coho i::
pastures after flood water recede.
28
H
r �\
C f��rlA «/III C/?E"EK clir,-,a /6V
Figure 3. Changes in stream habitat in Chimacum Creek.bet:aeen
circa 1800 and 1995. From Bahis & Rubin (1096).
29
Pysht River
The Pysht River is a moderate sized drainage (30,000 acres)
located in the western SJF. The Pysht mainstem is 16.5 miles long
and receives drainage from several significant tributaries.
Precipitation patterns in the Pysht are more similar to those found
in the coastal Olympics. Although historic estimates of coho
salmon production are unavailable, anecdotal information supports
the contention that the Pysht supported a sizable and diverse
salmon population.
In contrast to Chimacum Creek the Pysht is managed almost
entirely for commercial timber production. The basin was
historically occupied by bands of S'Klallam peoples who lived
permanently at a settlement near the mouth of the river. The area
was first settled by Euro- Americans in the 1.870s. Commercial
timber operators followed, and by 1915 full -scale railroad logging
operations were initiated. By 1925, the majority of old growth
accessible to railroad logging had been harvested. After World War
II, truck logging, which allowed access to upper portions of the
drainage network proliferated. Intensive clear- cutting peaked in
the late forties and again in the late 1980s7.
Logging has significantly affected salmon habitat in the Pysht
River. Sediment yield as a result of intensive roading, and
landsliding has increased (Benda 1993; Shaw 1993) . Channel
conditions, particularly as affected by loss of LWD and increased
sediment yield have been degraded. Thermal regime has been altered
over the conditions coho salmon evolved to in the basin. Despite
these problems, the situation i s
s not hopeless. Recent improvements
in forest practices, ongoing restoration projects, combined with
the heightened concern of one large landowner (and departure of
another) provide hope over the long term. The Pysht still contains
'Clear- cutting in the 198Cs was driven by corporate financina
debts ( "junk bond forestry "). The forestry practices used in the
Pysht inspired controversy that helped persuade the
Washington to revise its Forest Pract -ce Code. state of
30
habitat characteristics critical to coho salmon, namely available
over- wintering habitat areas and an intact estuary.
Pysht River Coho Life History Simulation
Adults -We assumed a hypothetical escapement of 1000 adults to the
Pysht River. Actual estimates of total escapement to the Pysht are
unavailable, but are likely less than 1000 fish annually. Based
upon a 1:1 sex ratios and an average fecundity of 2,500 eggs /female
for Washington origin coho (Salo & Bayliff 1958; Fraser et al.
1983), a yield of 1,250,000 eggs is expected in spawning habitats
of the Pysht River.
Egg Survival -A complete assessment of spawning gravel quality has
been conducted in the Pysht River. Based upon 135 McNeil Core
samples collected in mainstem and tributary spawning areas, McHenry
et al. (1993) found that the levels of fine sediment <0.85 mm
averaged 17.30. Increasing levels of fine sediment in intergravel
environments are known to be detrimental to developing salmonid
eggs. In western Washington watersheds, Peterson et al. (1993) has
shown that fine sediment levels <126 are considered favorable,
levels between 12 -176 are considered moderately degraded, and
levels exceeding 176 are harmful. In order to assess expected egg
survival, we compared average fine sediment values in the Pysht to
coho egg survival curves developed from both laboratory and in -situ
studies in the Northwest. From these curves a range of survival
values was determined (9 -550). Applying these expected survival
rates to the total egg deposition yields three estimates (low,
medium, high) of total fry emergence (112,500, 312,500, 687,500).
Survival to emergence is also affected by channel scour
processes in the SJF streams, and should be considered an additive
mortality factor. Stream bed scour is affected by the relationship
'The literature indicates that sex ratios for coho are
variable and are often skewed by large numbers of jacks.
Literature values for ratio of male to female coho from Alaska and
British Columbia ranged from 0.9:1 to 3.1 :l (Sandercock 1991)
31
between peak flow, sediment size and yield, and channel
characteristics (gradient, roughness). Although these processes
have been widely observed, its relationship to land management
practices has not been quantified. However, there appears to be a
relationship between scour and streams that are channelized
(Orsborn & Ralph 1995), depleted of woody debris (Smith et al.
1993) or heavily aggraded with sediment (Schuett -Names et al.
1995) . These are conditions common to many streams in the SJF.
Morrill et al. (In Preparation) concluded that bankfull discharges
of a 1 -2 year recurrence rate caused significant mortality to
developing coho embryos in the Pysht River. Based on these
observations, we have added a mortality factor of 0.5. Applying
this factor to the range of survival values expected from fine
sediment mortality yields 56,250, 156,250, and 343,750 total fry.
Spring -Se=er Parr -Newly emerged coho fry (length around 30 mm)
typically emigrate to quiescent water areas such as stream margins,
and backwater areas and begin feeding. By early summer, fry
disperse to stream habitats, particularly pools, where they compete
for food and space. Competition for available space is intense,
with the most favorable habitats typically being occupied by the
largest individuals. Displaced fish are forced to locate new
territories or are eventually displaced downstream, and in some
cases to the estuary (Mason & Chapman 1965). Predation is also a
mortality factor. The abundance of coho in a stream during summer
is directly related to the number and complexity of territories
available (Larkin 1977; Nickleson et al. 1992). At current seeding
levels in the Pysht River, summer rearing habitat for coho does not
appear to be limiting. A basin -wide survey of stream habitat
indicates that approximately 70,000 and 123,000 m= of tributar�,,and
mainstem summer rearing habitat, respectively, are available for
summer parr in the Pysht (Unpublished Data, Lower E1wha Klallam
Tribe). Despite the basin -wide depletion of LWD, a variety of pool
types (largely formed by bed features) are available for rearing.
A combined spring- summer survi %ral factor of .65 :aas assumed for the
32
Pysht River (Reeves et al. 1989) . Applying this factor to
potential fry survival yielded a range of 36,562, 101,562, and
223,437 total summer parr. Assuming even distribution over
available habitats, juvenile coho densities of o.18/m, (low),
0.52/m2 (medium) , and 1.15 /m= (high) could be expected. The low
range compares favorably with actual coho summer parr densities
found in Pysht River tributaries (Unpublished Data, Elwha Klallam
Tribe).
It should be noted that summer habitat in the Pysht River
becomes fully utilized at 965,000 fry (assuming a density of 5.0
fish /m= of pool area) . Based upon assumptions of intergravel
mortality factors, as few as 2,500 adults (1:1 sex ratio) could
fully utilize ( "seed ") the available summer rearing habitat in the
Pysht River.
Winter Parr -With the onset of winter and decreasing water
temperatures, juvenile coho salmon redistribute into deeper pools
(particularly with complex cover) and off - channel habitats (Bustard
& Narver 1975; Scarlett & Cederholm 1984). Movement is generally
in a downstream direction (in response to freshets) and
considerable distances may be involved. Coho streams with the best
over - wintering habitat typically contain spring -fed ponds, beaver
ponds, or side - channels (Narver 1978; Peterson 1980). Coho that
are able to access such wintering habitats typically survive at
very high rates. For example, survival of winter parr in Carnation
Creek, British Columbia (prior to logging) exceeded 670
(Tscpalinski & Hartman 1983) In western Washington streams, over -
wintering habitat has been substantially altered. Estimates of
over - winter survival for winter parr in western Washington and
Oregon generally average less than 350 (Bustard & Narver 1975;
Reeves et al. 1989). In the SiF, over- winter survival may be much
33
higher. In the Pysht River potential over - winter habitat' was
estimated at 15,340 m= for tributaries and 38,275 mz for lower
mainstem areas. There is however, no data available to assess
actual survival in these areas. Based upon the literature values
for over - wintering habitat, we assigned an average survival rate of
0.325. Applying this to the total expected summer parr yields a
range of 11,882, 33,007, 78,202 potential coho smolts.
Smolt to Adult Survival- Estimates of smolt to adult (marine)
survival are available from Snow Creek in the eastern SJF (Lestelle
et al. 1993), and from Big Beef Creek, a tributary to Hood Canal
(Quinn 1994). These data show some disturbing trends in marine
survival of coho salmon. In Big Beef Creek for the years 1976-
1978, (Quinn 1994) found that survival to adult averaged 20.106.
More recent estimates for the period 1973 -1989 show that marine
survival averaged 22.9. (Lestelle et al. 1993). There are
indications that marine survival rates for SJF coho are much lower
than those for Puget Sound stocks. For Snow Creek, only combined
ocean mortality (natural and harvest) estimates are available
(Lestelle et al. 1993) . For the period 1976 to 1989, smolt to
adult return rates averaged 3.9. (range 1.1 to 7.7). The authors
observed a declining rate of return, that was not attributable to
any one specific cause. We applied a marine survival of 15.5. to
the range of smolt yields and obtained estimates of 1,842, 5,116,
12,121, adult coho.
Survival to Escapement -The final mortality factor are those
associated with commercial fisheries. Coho salmon from the SJF are
subjected to fisheries in Alaska, British Columbia, coastal
Washington, and Puget Sound. Exploitation rates have been hiah:
Lestelle et al. (1993) analyzed exc?oitation rates for Big Beer
9Over- wintering habitat is def_ned as pools formed by large
wood (logs, roots, or jams) with a residual dep::h >i m,
side -
channels or off - channel ponds.
34
Creek coho for the years 1975 -1988 and found a average harvest of
77.40 (range 55.6- 90.7 %). The authors reported no obvious trends
in exploitation rate over time. For stocks of the western SJF,
there is considerable concern about increasing exploitation rates
in specific fisheries. Coded -wire tag recoveries for the period
between 1986 -1990 showed an increasing exploitation rate in west
coast Vancouver Island troll fisheries. Assuming an average
exploitation rate of 65% yields a potential escapement range of
644, 1,790, and 4,242 fish.
35
CONCLUSIONS
The Strait of Juan de Fuca covers an area of approximately
1500 mil and includes some 48 independent watersheds that support
coho, ranging in size from <10 mil to >300 mil. Hydrologic
conditions due to differences in watershed size, elevation and
position with regards to the rainshadow of the Olympic Mountains,
are highly variable in the region. Coho salmon populations in the
SJF are significantly impacted by degradation of freshwater
habitats. Low marine survival rates and high interception rates
also hamper stock productivity. Based upon the minimum numbers of
fish necessary to prevent genetic introgression (WDFW In
Preparation) we were unable to identify any healthy stocks of coho
in the region. This finding is directly in contrast to other stock
assessment studies (WDFW et al. 1994).
Failure to meet Escapement Goals
SJF coho stocks have consistently failed to meet escapement
objectives established by fisheries managers. One possible outcome
of the PFMC stock review process is an assessment of escapement
objectives in the SJF. A combination of low freshwater survival
rates, marine survival rates, and high exploitation rates (in
mixed -stock fisheries) has allowed SJF coho to only attain a
maximum of 7001 of the escapement goal only once since 1983. The
cumulative effects of these factors create some of the most
difficult management conditions for any wild coho stock in
Washington. Under these conditions, discussions of redefining
escapement goals may be irrelevant, unless all freshwater and
marine survival factors can be improved simultaneously.
Substantial evidence exists that increased mortality occurs at
all stages of coho life history in the SJF. Impacts to freshwater
habitat are agruably amongst the greatest of any region in
Washington. The two largest and potentially most productive
watersheds in the region have been heavily hydro- modified.and are
currently managed primarily for hatchery production. Approximately-
620 of regions watersheds have been subjected to intensive logging
36
operations and are highly destablized. Streams in the eastern SJF
are influenced by rainshadow cast by the Olympic Mountains and have
flow conditions that are similar to those of streams at the extreme
southern edge of their range (N. California /Southern Oregon) .
Habitat degradation caused by logging,- urbanization and
agricultural activities in combination with these flow conditions
is severe enough to cause local extirpation of coho stocks. Recent
data collected by the WDFW and LEKT indicates that this may have
already occurred in a number of eastern SJF streams.
Elwha River
Construction of hydroelectric dams without passage facilities
on the Elwha River at river mile 4.9 and 12.0, effectively
eliminated 35.9 miles of mainstem and some 42.9 miles of tributary
from production. Much of this habitat is considered pristine,
located within the boundaries of Olympic National Park. Conditions
in the lower 4.9 miles of the Elwha (below Elwha Dam) are severely
degraded due to cumulative effects of channelization and loss of
gravel recruitment. The Elwha River is currently managed almost
entirely for hatchery coho production. Potential smolt coho
production from a restored Elwha River represents between 36 -650 of
the total from the SJF region as a whole. Restoration of the Elwha
River represents the single best opportunity for SJF coho stocks as
a whole.
Dungeness River
Habitat conditions in the Dungeness River are so severely
degraded that only limited natural production. occurs. The lower 11
miles of the Dungeness River has been extensively channelized and
systematically cleared of large woody debris. Water withdrawals
Place additional strain on salmon populations located in marginal
flow conditions. Surface water withdrawals on the Dungeness River
currently average about 6001 of the river's natural stream flow. A
total of 579 cfs could be legally removed from the Dungeness River,
even though the summer low flows average around 200 cfs. Over 400
37
miles of irrigation canal have been constructed in the Dungeness
Valley to deliver river water for agricultural purposes. Many of
these diversion are either unscreened or ineffectively screened.
A healthy Dungeness River represents 18.50 of the total coho smolt
yield of the SJF. The Dungeness should also be a high priority for
restoration in the region.
Western Strait of Juan de Fuca
The western SJF is located within one of the highest runoff
yield zones in western Washington. Hydrologic stress on biological
systems are extremely high in the western SJF, including:
1) Soil types with high water delivery potential,
2) High drainage densities,
3) High road densities,
4) Destabilized channel networks from LWD depletion, accelerated
sediment yield.
In the western SJF, impacts to freshwater habitat are primarily
limited to those associated with 80 years of intensive timber
harvest, and in some cases hydromodifications on lower mainstem
rivers. The region's old- growth forests have been rapidly
converted to tree farms, as Olympic National Park affords little
protection to SJF drainages. Historic management practices have
left watershed conditions typically destablized with high road
densities, accelerated rates of mass wasting, and altered riparian
communities. Past management practices such as stream cleanouts,
cedar salvage and channelization have further deteriorated habitat
conditions. Because of these conditions, current forest practices
rules, though improved, may be inadequate to allow watershed
recovery in the western SJF.
We modelled mortality factors for Pysht river coho throughout
their life history (Table 8) and found that mortality factors in
the winter were significant. Losses in the intergravel environment
due to elevated fine sediment levels and scour may exceed 751-
during some years. Over- wintering mortalit, is also suspected to
38
Table 8. Summary of life history impacts to coho salmon of the
Pysht River, Washington, a representative stream of the western
Strait of Juan de Fuca. Based upon escapement of 1000 fish.
Life Stacre 17; Ok D—A.., A
be high (7011), as habitat has been lost to diking, road
construction and LWD depletion. At current seeding levels summer
habitat is adequate, however at marginally higher escapements, this
habitat type may also become limiting.
Eastern Strait of Juan de Fuca
In the eastern SJF, the cumulative effects of agricultural
development, water withdrawals, channelization and urbanization in
combination with high exploitation rates and limited natural flow
regimes have driven coho populations perilously low. Recent
survey data indicates that coho populations in the eastern SJF are
in serious jeopardy: many stocks are declining at an alarming rate.
Water production per unit area in this portion of the SJF is more
similar to that of southern Oregon or Northern California. These
conditions present a higher risk of local extinction in the SJF,
similar to those seen for salmon stocks at the geographical
extremes of their natural distribution.
39
Spawning
56,250- 343,750
Survival a function of gravel
quality /channel stability
Summer
36,562- 223,437
Density estimates are a
Rearing
function of flows and pool
quality, which is a function
of LWD cover and residual pool
depths
Winter
11,882- 78,202
Loss of off- channel habitat
Rearing
and subsequent alteration in
peak flows
Smolt to
Adult
1,842- 12,121
Marine survival much lower for
SJF stocks than those of Puget
Sound
Survival to
644- 2,242
Increasing rates of
Escapement
exploitation particularly off
Vancouver Island
be high (7011), as habitat has been lost to diking, road
construction and LWD depletion. At current seeding levels summer
habitat is adequate, however at marginally higher escapements, this
habitat type may also become limiting.
Eastern Strait of Juan de Fuca
In the eastern SJF, the cumulative effects of agricultural
development, water withdrawals, channelization and urbanization in
combination with high exploitation rates and limited natural flow
regimes have driven coho populations perilously low. Recent
survey data indicates that coho populations in the eastern SJF are
in serious jeopardy: many stocks are declining at an alarming rate.
Water production per unit area in this portion of the SJF is more
similar to that of southern Oregon or Northern California. These
conditions present a higher risk of local extinction in the SJF,
similar to those seen for salmon stocks at the geographical
extremes of their natural distribution.
39
A historic assessment of Chimacum Creek showed that
destruction of riparian forests, associated wetlands, extirpation
of beaver, and channelization has resulted in a 94 and 970 loss of
summer and winter habitat for coho salmon, respectively. These
losses parallel declines in productivity for coho in the basin.
The conditions described in Chimacum are representative of
approximately 260 of the stream mileage in the SJF.
40
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