HomeMy WebLinkAbout2000 Salmon & Steelhead Habitat Limiting FactorsSALMON AND STEELHEAD HABITAT LIMITING
FACTORS IN THE NORTH WASHINGTON
COASTAL STREAMS OF WRIA 20
March, 2000
Carol J. Smith, Ph.D.
Washington State Conservation Commission
300 Desmond Drive
Lacey, Washington 98503
Acknowledgements
This report was developed by the WRIA 20 Technical Advisory Group for Habitat
Limiting Factors. Their expertise and cooperation made this report possible. Team
members include:
Steve Allison, Clallam Conservation District
John Cambalik, North Olympic Lead Entity Coordinator
Dr. Julie Dieu, Rayonier
Joel Freudenthal, Clallam County
Dick Goin, North Olympic Salmon Coalition
Mike Haggerty, Makah Indian Tribe
Jim Jacoby, U.S. Forest Service
Jim Jorgensen, Hoh Tribe
Katie Krueger, Quileute Tribe
Cathy Lear, Clallam County
Roger Lien, Quileute Tribe
John McMillan, Hoh Tribe
John Meyer, Olympic National Park
Osa Odum, NWIFC, SHHIAP
Theresa Powell, WA Dept. Fish and Wildlife
Warren Scarlett, WA Dept. Natural Resources
Ted Schmidt, Clallam Conservation District
Jill Silver, Hoh Tribe
Dr. Carol Smith, WA Conservation Commission
Trevin Taylor, Quileute Tribe
A special thanks to Anne Shaffer (WDFW) and Roger Mosley (WDFW) for reviewing
documents and maps, and to Ed Manary (Conservation Commission) for writing the
"Habitat Limiting Factors Background ". I also extend appreciation to Devin Smith
(NWIFC) and Kurt Fresh (WDFW) for compiling and developing the habitat rating
standards, and to Ron McFarlane (NWIFC) for digitizing and producing the maps.
The cover photo shows reflections from a Dickey River side slough inhabited by wild
coho salmon.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLEOF CONTENTS ................................................................................................................. ..............................1
LISTOF MAPS ............................................................................................................................... ..............................6
LISTOF TABLES ........................................................................................................................... ..............................7
LISTOF FIGURES ......................................................................................................................... ..............................8
EXECUTIVESUMMARY ............................................................................................................. ..............................9
INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................................... .............................12
HABITAT LIMITING FACTORS BACKGROUND ...................................................... .............................12
THE RELATIVE ROLE OF HABITAT IN HEALTHY POPULATIONS OF
NATURAL SPAWNING SALMON ................................................................. .............................13
INTRODUCTION TO HABITAT IMPACTS ................................................................. .............................19
WATERSHEDCONDITION ......................................................................................................... .............................20
SALMON HABITAT IN NORTH COAST WASHINGTON STREAMS ...................... .............................20
Introduction........................................................................................................ .............................20
Sooesand Waatch Basins ................................................................................... .............................21
OzetteBasin ....................................................................................................... .............................21
QuillayuteBasin ................................................................................................. .............................22
HohBasin ........................................................................................................... .............................25
SALMON AND STEELHEAD STOCK STATUS IN THE WAATCH, SOOES, AND
OZETTEBASINS .............................................................................................. .............................26
SALMON AND STEELHEAD STOCK STATUS IN THE QUILLAYUTE BASIN ..... .............................27
SALMON AND STEELHEAD STOCK STATUS IN THE HOH BASIN ..................... .............................28
HABITAT LIMITING FACTORS BY SUB -BASIN .................................................................... .............................34
CATEGORIES OF HABITAT LIMITING FACTORS USED BY THE WASHINGTON
STATE CONSERVATION COMMISSION ..................................................... .............................34
FloodplainConditions ........................................................................................ .............................34
Streambed Sediment Conditions ........................................................................ .............................34
RiparianConditions ............................................................................................ .............................35
WaterQuality ..................................................................................................... .............................35
WaterQuantity ................................................................................................... .............................35
Estuarine and Nearshore Habitat ........................................................................ .............................35
LakeHabitat ....................................................................................................... .............................36
BiologicalProcesses ........................................................................................... .............................36
RATING HABITAT CONDITIONS ............................................................................... .............................36
HABITAT LIMITING FACTORS IN THE WAATCH, SOOES, AND OZETTE
BASINS.............................................................................................................. .............................37
3
Loss of Access for Anadromous Salmonids in the Sooes, Waatch, and Ozette
Basins................................................................................................................. .............................37
Floodplain Impacts in the Waatch, Sooes, and Ozette Basins ............................ .............................39
Streambed Sediment Conditions in the Waatch, Sooes, and Ozette Basins ....... .............................40
Riparian Conditions in the Waatch, Sooes and Ozette Basins ........................... .............................42
Water Quality in the Sooes, Waatch, and Ozette Basins .................................... .............................43
Water Quantity in the Waatch, Sooes, and Ozette Basins .................................. .............................43
Lake Habitat in the Ozette Basin ........................................................................ .............................46
Biological Processes in the Ozette Basin ........................................................... .............................47
HABITAT LIMITING FACTORS IN THE QUILLAYUTE BASIN ............................. .............................48
Loss of Access in the Quillayute Basin .............................................................. .............................48
Floodplain Impacts in the Quillayute Basin ....................................................... .............................53
Streambed Sediment Conditions in the Quillayute Basin ................................... ....:........................57
Riparian Conditions in the Quillayute Basin ...................................................... .............................66
Water Quality in the Quillayute Basin ............................................................... .............................74
Water Quantity in the Quillayute Basin ............................................................. .............................77
Lake Habitat in the Quillayute Basin ................................................................. .............................80
Biological Processes in the Quillayute Basin ..................................................... .............................81
HOHBASIN .................................................................................................................... .............................81
Loss of Access in the Hoh Basin ........................................................................ .............................81
Floodplain Impacts in the Hoh Basin ................................................................. .............................88
Streambed Sediment Conditions in the Hoh Basin ............................................. .............................89
Riparian Conditions in the Hoh Basin ................................................................ .............................91
Water Quality in the Hoh Basin ......................................................................... .............................92
Water Quantity in the Hoh Basin ....................................................................... .............................93
Biological Processes in the Hoh Basin ............................................................... .............................95
Estuary and Near Shore Conditions for WRIA 20 ............................................. .............................95
ASSESSMENT OF HABITAT LIMITING FACTORS ................................ ............................... ............................103
HABITAT IN NEED OF PROTECTION ...................................................... ............................... ............................121
RECOMMENDATIONS .................................................................. ............................... ............................121
HohBasin: ..................................................................................................................................... 121
SoleduckSub-Basin: ..................................................................................................................... 123
Estuary and Marine Near Shore Habitat: ....................................................................................... 123
RECOMMENDATIONS AND DATA GAPS FOR WRIA 20 HABITAT LIMITING FACTORS .........................124
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR SALMONID HABITAT RESTORATION ACTIONS IN
WRIA20 ............................................................................ ............................... ............................124
Access................................................................................ ............................... ............................124
Floodplains......................................................................... ............................... ............................124
Streambed and Sediment Issues ......................................... ............................... ............................125
Riparian.............................................................................. ............................... ............................125
WaterQuality ..................................................................... ............................... ............................125
Estuaryand Near Shore ...................................................... ............................... ............................126
DATA NEEDS FOR SALMONID HABITAT ASSESSMENTS IN WRIA 20 ............. ............................126
Fish Distribution and Stock Status ..................................... ............................... ............................126
Access................................................................................ ............................... ............................127
Floodplains......................................................................... ............................... ............................127
Streambed and Sediment Issues ......................................... ............................... ............................127
Riparian.............................................................................. ............................... ............................128
El
WaterQuality ..................................................................... ............................... ............................128
WaterQuantity ................................................................... ............................... ............................128
BiologicalProcesses ........................................................... ............................... ............................128
Estuaryand Near Shore ...................................................... ............................... ............................129
GLOSSARY................................................................................................... ............................... ............................141
LIST OF MAPS
Several maps have been developed for this report and can be found in a separate
electronic file that allows the reader to print either wall -sized maps or 11X17" maps. The
reader can also simultaneously display a map and associated text. Below is a list of maps
found in the WRIA 20 Map file.
Map 1: Location of WRIA 20
Map 2: Major Sub - Basins in WRIA 20
Map 3a: Sooes/Waatch/Ozette Basin Coho Salmon Distribution
Map 3b: Sooes /Waatch/Ozette Basin Fall Chinook Salmon Distribution
Map 3c: Sooes/Waatch/Ozette Basin Steelhead Trout Distribution
Map 3d: Sooes/Waatch/Ozette Basin Chum Salmon Distribution
Map 3e: Sooes/Waatch/Ozette Basin Sockeye Salmon Distribution
Map 3f: Quillayute Basin Coho Salmon Distribution
Map 3g: Quillayute Basin Fall Chinook Salmon Distribution
Map 3h: Quillayute Basin Winter Steelhead Trout Distribution
Map 3I: Quillayute Basin Chum Salmon Distribution
Map 3j: Quillayute Basin Summer Steelhead Trout Distribution
Map 3k: Quillayute Basin Sockeye Salmon Distribution
Map 31: Quillayute Basin Summer Chinook Salmon Distribution
Map 3m: Hoh Basin Coho Salmon Distribution
Map 3n: Hoh Basin Fall Chinook Salmon Distribution
Map 3o: Hoh Basin Winter Steelhead Trout Distribution
Map 3p: Hoh Basin Summer Steelhead Trout Distribution
Map 3q: Hoh Basin Chum Salmon Distribution
Map 3r: Hoh Basin Spring/Summer Chinook Salmon Distribution
Map 4: Quillayute Basin Blockages
Map 5a: Quillayute Basin LWD Conditions
Map 5b: Hoh Basin LWD Conditions
Map 6a: Ozette Basin Riparian Conditions
Map 6b: Quillayute Basin Riparian Conditions
Map 6c: Hoh Basin Riparian Conditions
Map 7: Hoh Basin Floodplain Complexes
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. North Coast salmon and steelhead stocks and status .......... ............................... 30
Table 2. Riparian Roads in the Sooes, Waatch and Ozette Basins ... ............................... 40
Table 3. Percent fine sediments in Ozette streams (McHenry et al. 1996) ...................... 42
Table 4. Riparian roads in the Quillayute Basin ............................... ............................... 54
Table 5. Soleduck watershed road density and erosion rates (U.S. Forest Service 1995).60
Table 6. Debris flow events in the North Fork Calawah (U.S. Forest Service 1996)......63
Table 7. North Fork Calawah LWD levels (U.S. Forest Service 1996 ) ...........................64
Table 8. North Fork Calawah LWD and Shade Condition (U.S. Forest Service 1996)...70
Table 9. North Fork Calawah Pool Habitat (U.S. Forest Service 1996 ) ........................... 72
Table 10. Hoh Basin Reaches Impacted by Cedar Spalts (Jill Silver, Hoh Tribe, personal
communication) ...................................................................... ............................... 83
Table 11. Hoh Basin blocking culverts (Jill Silver, Hoh Tribe, personal communication).
................................................................................................ ............................... 85
Table 12. Riparian Roads in the Hoh Basin ...................................... ............................... 89
Table 13. Source documents for the development of standards .......... ............................104
Table 14. Salmonid habitat condition standards .. ............................... ............................105
Table 15. System for rating estuarine habitat conditions .........
Table 16. Summary of WRIA 20 Limiting Factors Results.....
7
.........................110
.........................112
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Hydrologic maturity in the Ozette Basin ........................... ............................... 45
Figure 2. Still water off - channel habitat in the Dickey sub - basin ..... ............................... 56
Figure 3. Bank erosion on the mainstem Bogachiel River (Photo from Dick Goin)........ 62
Figure 4. Road - triggered landslide in the lower Sitkum River (photo from Dick Goin). 66
Figure 5. An example of windthrow in the Dickey Watershed (picture by Theresa
Powell) ............................................................................... ............................... 67
Figure 6. Near -term LWD recruitment potential in the North Fork Calawah Watershed
(U.S. Forest Service 1996). Green =good recruitment, blue =fair recruitment,
red =poor recruitment ........................................................... ............................... 71
Figure 7. Near -term LWD recruitment potential in the South Fork Calawah and Sitkum
Watersheds (U.S. Forest Service 1998). Green =good recruitment, blue =fair
recruitment, red =poor recruitment, yellow = naturally low recruitment ............. 73
Figure 8. WRIA 20 stream reaches on the 1998 Candidate 303(d) List (DOE 1998)...... 76
Figure 9. Vegetation age in the North Fork Calawah Watershed (data from U.S. Forest
Service1996) ....................................................................... .............................80
Figure 10. The small protected cove near Cedar Creek with a large seastack ................. 96
Figure 11. Acres of Land Type in the Quillayute Estuary (ACOE 1979) ......................... 97
Figure 12. Quillayute Estuary (1997 & 1964) ..................................... .............................99
Figure 13. Channel changes in the lower Hoh River .......................... ............................101
Figure 14. Changes over time in the lower Ozette River ................... ............................102
8
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
As directed under Engrossed Substitute House Bill 2496 and Second Engrossed Second
Substitute Senate Bill 5596, the habitat conditions of salmonid- producing watersheds
within WRIA 20 are reviewed and rated. The worst habitat problems are summarized
here, but an overview of all the habitat ratings is provided in Table 16 in the Assessment
Chapter. The Assessment Chapter also specifies the criteria used to rate habitat
conditions. Detailed discussions for each of these habitat conditions can be found within
the Habitat Limiting Factors Chapter of this report. Maps of updated salmon and
steelhead trout distribution, culverts and other blockages, large woody debris (LWD) and
riparian conditions, and floodplain complexes were prepared and are located in a separate
electronic file on this disc. This first round report examines salmon and steelhead trout
habitat conditions. Later versions will address habitat issues for other salmonids.
The streams addressed in this report include all salmon- and steelhead- producing streams
in the following basins: Waatch, Sooes, Ozette, Quillayute, Goodman, Mosquito, Hoh,
Cedar, and Steamboat. These are discussed in order from north to south. In the north end
of the WRIA, there are insufficient data to adequately assess the major habitat conditions
in the Waatch and Sooes basins. However, known current problems include numerous
blockages throughout the Waatch and Sooes basins with riparian road floodplain impacts
for Snag Creek and Thirty Cent Creek in the Sooes. Both the Waatch and Sooes basins
are greatly impacted by high water temperatures, but specific data to assess the cause of
the warm temperatures were not found. Stock status for many species is depressed in
these streams, suggesting a lack of marine - derived nutrients.
In the Ozette Basin, numerous "poor" habitat conditions are found and appear to be
linked. The Ozette River, which drains the lake to the ocean, has been cleared of LWD.
This lack of LWD has been suggested to contribute to possibly reduced water level
fluctuations in Lake Ozette. Invasive plants, such as Reed canarygrass, are found along
the lakeshores. Sediment is a major habitat limiting factor, resulting in degraded
spawning habitat for lake spawning sockeye, but the cause of the high levels of fines is
uncertain. Some of the larger tributaries draining into Lake Ozette (Umbrella Creek, Big
River, Siwash Creek) are incised with banks hardened by Reed canarygrass. Fine
sediment levels are high in these streams as well. Road densities are high in this basin,
likely contributing to the sediment loads. Throughout the area, "poor" LWD and riparian
conditions are found. Other problems include warm water temperatures, poor hydrologic
maturity, an altered estuary, and a lack of marine - derived nutrients.
The Quillayute basin is the largest basin in WRIA 20. It consists of four major sub -
basins: the Dickey, Soleduck, Calawah, and Bogachiel. Each sub -basin has unique
habitat characteristics and problems, but all eventually drain into a significantly altered
estuary. The estuary is regularly dredged, and has armored and diked banks. Estuarine
habitat is extremely limited within WRIA 20, and the Quillayute estuary is the largest
estuary in the WRIA. It is near known surf smelt (salmonid food item) spawning grounds
and kelp and eelgrass habitat, important for salmonid rearing. Many upstream habitat
problems are translated to the estuary and near shore habitat. Of particular concern are
E
increased sedimentation and water flows. The increased flows are likely a result of
several upstream problems, notably incised channels, reduced levels of LWD, and a loss
of hydrologic maturity.
The Dickey sub -basin is well known for its production of coho salmon. It consists of
plentiful sloughs, wetlands, and small streams, and is dominated by low gradient habitat.
Because of the low- gradient nature, mass wasting is rare. However sedimentation is still
a major habitat problem and is predominantly due to roads. Riparian impacts occur
throughout the Dickey and are worsened because of windthrow. The strong windstorms
in the winter destroy the riparian buffers left after recent timber harvest in susceptible
areas. Warm water temperatures are another "poor" habitat condition throughout the
Dickey sub - basin, and may be contributing to an increased distribution of squawfish,
known predators of salmon. Blockages, such as culverts, are another major habitat
problem in this sub - basin. The naturally low- gradient conditions result in a lack of
natural blockages for salmonids, yet numerous culverts exist and should be addressed.
Low water flows in the summer are thought to limit the production of salmon and
steelhead. Impacts that worsen low flows include a reduction of fog drip due to a loss of
older conifers within the watersheds, as well as altered wetlands due to increased road
sedimentation and loss of wetland riparian vegetation. While historically, LWD was
very abundant in these streams due to the low- gradients and hence, lack of downstream
transport, LWD levels in the mainstems, especially in the East Fork Dickey River have
recently decreased to low levels. Flooding in December, 1999 not only washed out LWD
in the East Fork, but has also resulted in signs of channel instability. Riparian roads
impact the floodplain conditions in Coal and Colby Creeks.
The Soleduck sub -basin lies partly within the Olympic National Park (upper reaches) and
partly in timber - managed, agricultural, and residential development. The contrast
between the pristine habitat conditions within the Park is sharp compared to conditions
further downstream. Outside of the Park boundaries, numerous major habitat problems
exist. Excessive sedimentation is a problem and stems mostly from landslides. High
road densities are associated with the sedimentation problems. High levels of fine
sediments are found in many Soleduck tributaries, which degrade the quality of spawning
habitat. Areas of "poor" LWD and riparian conditions are other problems. The Soleduck
drainage is naturally limited in wetland habitat, yet continued loss of wetlands and off -
channel habitat occurs. Warm water temperatures are a problem in the summer,
potentially impacting adult migration and spawning of summer chinook and a unique
summer coho run. A large potential habitat problem is the over - allocation of water from
the river. Contributing to summer low flows and warm water temperatures is the "poor"
hydrologic maturity (loss of fog drip, change in hydrology) outside of the Park
boundaries. Blockages are a known major problem within Gunderson and Tassel
Creeks.
The Bogachiel sub -basin is lacking in specific data regarding many of the habitat
conditions assessed in this report. Considering the number of salmon stocks and extent
of salmon production from this drainage, this is a major data need. Based upon
professional judgement, some of the larger habitat problems for the Bogachiel mainstem
10
include "poor" riparian and LWD conditions downstream of the Olympia National Park
boundaries, as well as an aggraded mainstem that worsens downstream. Collapsing
banks are a problem along the lower mainstem, and fines from exposed clay layers likely
degrade spawning habitat. Warm water temperatures are a documented habitat problem
in the lower Bogachiel. Habitat conditions within the Olympia National Park (upper
reaches of the Bogachiel) are excellent.
The Calawah sub -basin has extensive landslide problems, mostly relating to older roads.
Side -cast roads are a particular concern, and in general high road densities are found in
the South Fork Calawah and in the headwaters of the North Fork Calawah. The
excessive sedimentation is thought to contribute to dewatering in Hyas Creek, the North
Fork Sitkum River, and Rainbow Creek. Channel instability is a major problem
throughout the sub -basin as well, and is likely a result of the excessive sedimentation,
low levels of LWD and riparian road impacts. Floodplain problems such as incision and
riparian roads are significant in the North Fork Calawah, Cool Creek, Devil's Creek, the
South Fork Calawah, and Hyas Creek. Levels of LWD are "poor" in many areas of the
South Fork drainage, and warm water temperatures are a documented problem in the
South Fork Calawah.
A significant portion of the Hoh basin lies within the Olympic National Park, but
downstream of the Park, considerable habitat problems exist. Debris flows are common
and devastating, resulting in scoured, incised channels with few spawning gravels and
LWD. Channel incision has exposed clay layers that contribute fines into the streams,
further degrading salmonid habitat. The sources of sediment loads are primarily mass
wasting and road erosion. Downstream of the Park boundaries, there are many areas of
"poor" LWD and riparian conditions. Access problems from culverts and cedar spalts are
numerous within the Hoh basin and are a major limiting factor. The spalts have
degraded water quality, riparian and channel conditions as well. Floodplain complexes
are vital habitats within the Hoh basin, providing excellent rearing and winter refuge
habitat. The loss and degradation of these floodplain complexes are significant impacts.
Riparian roads are another extensive floodplain problem in the Hoh basin. Reductions in
hydrologic maturity have occurred in areas of the middle Hoh basin, and contribute to
degraded floodplain habitat as well as a potentially altered flow regime. The loss of fog
drip is a major concern pertaining to low summer flows in the Hoh.
The smaller independent salmon and steelhead- producing streams include Goodman
Creek, Mosquito Creek, Cedar Creek, and Steamboat Creek. Few habitat data are
available for these streams, and this is a data need. However, biologists have noted that
sedimentation and an altered riparian are problems in some reaches of all of these creeks.
Numerous blockages from either culverts or spalts have been documented in Cedar and
Steamboat Creeks. In addition, the middle reaches of Goodman Creek have low levels of
LWD.
11
INTRODUCTION
Habitat Limiting Factors Background
The successful recovery of naturally spawning salmon populations depends upon
directing actions simultaneously at harvest, hatcheries, habitat and hydro, the 4H's. The
1998 state legislative session produced a number of bills aimed at salmon recovery.
Engrossed Substitute House Bill (ESHB) 2496 is a key piece of the 1998 Legislature's
salmon recovery effort, with the focus directed at salmon habitat issues.
Engrossed Substitute House Bill (ESHB) 2496 in part:
• directs the Conservation Commission in consultation with local government and the
tribes to invite private, federal, state, tribal and local government personnel with
appropriate expertise to act as a technical advisory group;
• directs the technical advisory group to identify limiting factors for salmonids to
respond to the limiting factors relating to habitat pursuant to section 8 sub 2 of this
act;
• defines limiting factors as "conditions that limit the ability of habitat to fully sustain
populations of salmon."
• defines salmon as all members of the family salmonidae, which are capable of self -
sustaining, natural production.
The overall goal of the Conservation Commission's limiting factors project is to identify
habitat factors limiting production of salmon in the state. In waters shared by salmon,
steelhead trout and bull trout we will include all three. Later, we will add bull trout only
waters as well as cutthroat trout.
It is important to note that the responsibilities given to the Conservation Commission in
ESHB 2496 do not constitute a full limiting factors analysis. The hatchery, hydro and
harvest segments of identifying limiting factors are being dealt with in other forums.
12
The Relative Role Of Habitat In Healthy Populations Of Natural Spawning Salmon
During the last 10,000 years, Washington State anadromous salmonid populations have
evolved in their specific habitats (Miller 1965). Water chemistry, flow, and the physical
stream components unique to each stream have helped shaped the characteristics of every
salmon population. These unique physical attributes have resulted in a wide variety of
distinct salmon stocks for each salmon species throughout the State. Within a given
species, stocks are population units that do not extensively interbreed because returning
adults rely on a stream's unique chemical and physical characteristics to guide them to
their natal grounds to spawn. This maintains the separation of stocks during
reproduction, thus preserving the distinctiveness of each stock.
Throughout the salmon's life cycle, the dependence between the stream and a stock
continues. Adults spawn in areas near their own origin because survival favors those that
do. The timing of juveniles leaving the river and entering the estuary is tied to high
natural river flows. It has been theorized that the faster speed during out - migration
reduces predation on the young salmon and perhaps is coincident to favorable feeding
conditions in the estuary (Wetherall 1971). These are a few examples that illustrate how
a salmon stock and its environment are intertwined throughout the entire life cycle.
Salmon habitat includes the physical, chemical and biological components of the
environment that support salmon. Within freshwater and estuarine environments, these
components include water quality, water quantity or flows, stream and river physical
features, riparian zones, upland terrestrial conditions, and ecosystem interactions as they
pertain to habitat. However, these components closely intertwine. Low stream flows can
alter water quality by increasing temperatures and decreasing the amount of available
dissolved oxygen, while concentrating toxic materials. Water quality can impact stream
conditions through heavy sediment loads, which result in a corresponding increase in
channel instability and decrease in spawning success. The riparian zone interacts with
the stream environment, providing nutrients and a food web base, woody debris for
habitat and flow control (stream features), filtering runoff prior to surface water entry
(water quality), and providing shade to aid in water temperature control.
Salmon habitat includes clean, cool, well- oxygenated water flowing at a normal (natural)
rate for all stages of freshwater life. In addition, salmon survival depends upon specific
habitat needs for egg incubation, juvenile rearing, migration of juveniles to saltwater,
estuary rearing, ocean rearing, adult migration to spawning areas, and spawning. These
specific needs can vary by species and even by stock.
When adults return to spawn, they not only need adequate flows and water quality, but
also unimpeded passage to their natal grounds. They need deep pools with vegetative
cover and instream structures such as root wads for resting and shelter from predators.
Successful spawning and incubation depend on sufficient gravel of the right size for that
particular population, in addition to the constant need of adequate flows and water
quality, all in unison at the necessary location. Also, delayed upstream migration can be
critical. After entering freshwater, most salmon have a limited time to migrate and
13
spawn, in some cases, as little as 2 -3 weeks. Delays can results in pre- spawning
mortality, or spawning in a sub - optimum location.
After spawning, the eggs need stable gravel that is not choked with sediment. River
channel stability is vital at this life history stage. Floods have their greatest impact to
salmon populations during incubation, and flood impacts are worsened by human
activities. In a natural river system, the upland areas are forested, and the trees and their
roots store precipitation, which slows the rate of storm water into the stream. The
natural, healthy river is sinuous and contains large pieces of wood contributed by an
intact, mature riparian zone. Both slow the speed of water downstream. Natural systems
have floodplains that are connected directly to the river at many points, allowing
wetlands to store flood water and later discharge this storage back to the river during
lower flows. In a healthy river, erosion or sediment input is great enough to provide new
gravel for spawning and incubation, but does not overwhelm the system, raising the
riverbed and increasing channel instability. A stable incubation environment is essential
for salmon, but is a complex function of nearly all habitat components contained within
that river ecosystem.
Once the young fry emerge from the gravel nests, certain species such as chum, pink, and
some chinook salmon quickly migrate downstream to the estuary. Other species, such as
coho, steelhead, bull trout, and chinook, will search for suitable rearing habitat within the
side sloughs and channels, tributaries, and spring -fed "seep" areas, as well as the outer
edges of the stream. These quiet -water side margin and off channel slough areas are vital
for early juvenile habitat. The presence of woody debris and overhead cover aid in food
and nutrient inputs as well as provide protection from predators. For most of these
species, juveniles use this type of habitat in the spring. Most sockeye populations
migrate from their gravel nests quickly to larger lake environments where they have
unique habitat requirements. These include water quality sufficient to produce the
necessary complex food web to support one to three years of salmon growth in that lake
habitat prior to outmigration to the estuary.
As growth continues, the juvenile salmon (parr) move away from the quiet shallow areas
to deeper, faster areas of the stream. These include coho, steelhead, bull trout, and
certain chinook. For some of these species, this movement is coincident with the summer
low flows. Low flows constrain salmon production for stocks that rear within the stream.
In non - glacial streams, summer flows are maintained by precipitation, connectivity to
wetland discharges, and groundwater inputs. Reductions in these inputs will reduce that
amount of habitat; hence the number of salmon dependent on adequate summer flows.
In the fall, juvenile salmon that remain in freshwater begin to move out of the mainstems,
and again, off - channel habitat becomes important. During the winter, coho, steelhead,
bull trout, and remaining chinook parr require habitat to sustain their growth and protect
them from predators and winter flows. Wetlands, stream habitat protected from the
effects of high flows, and pools with overhead are important habitat components during
this time.
14
Except for bull trout and resident steelhead, juvenile parr convert to smolts as they
migrate downstream towards the estuary. Again, flows are critical, and food and shelter
are necessary. The natural flow regime in each river is unique, and has shaped the
population's characteristics through adaptation over the last 10,000 years. Because of the
close inter - relationship between a salmon stock and its stream, survival of the stock
depends heavily on natural flow patterns.
The estuary provides an ideal area for rapid growth, and some salmon species are heavily
dependent on estuaries, particularly chinook, chum, and to a lesser extent, pink salmon.
Estuaries contain new food sources to support the rapid growth of salmon smolts, but
adequate natural habitat must exist to support the detritus -based food web, such as
eelgrass beds, mudflats, and salt marshes. Also, the processes that contribute nutrients
and woody debris to these environments must be maintained to provide cover from
predators and to sustain the food web. Common disruptions to these habitats include
dikes, bulkheads, dredging and filling activities, pollution, and alteration of downstream
components such as lack of woody debris and sediment transport.
All salmonid species need adequate flow and water quality, spawning riffles and pools, a
functional riparian zone, and upland conditions that favor stability, but some of these
specific needs vary by species, such as preferred spawning areas and gravel. Although
some overlap occurs, different salmon species within a river are often staggered in their
use of a particular type of habitat. Some are staggered in time, and others are separated
by distance.
Chum and pink salmon use the streams the least amount of time. Washington adult pink
salmon typically begin to enter the rivers in August and spawn in September and
October, although Dungeness summer pink salmon enter and spawn a month earlier
(WDFW and WWTIT 1994). During these times, low flows and associated high
temperatures and low dissolved oxygen can be problems. Other disrupted habitat
components, such as less frequent and shallow pools from sediment inputs and lack of
canopy from an altered riparian zone or widened river channel, can worsen these flow
and water quality problems because there are fewer refuges for the adults to hold prior to
spawning.
Pink salmon fry emerge from their gravel nests around March and migrate downstream to
the estuary within a month. After a limited rearing time in the estuary, pink salmon
migrate to the ocean for a little over a year, until the next spawning cycle. Most pink
salmon stocks in Washington return to the rivers only in odd years. The exception is the
Snohomish Basin, which supports both even- and odd -year pink salmon stocks.
In Washington, adult chum salmon (3 -5 years old) have three major run types. Summer
chum adults enter the rivers in August and September, and spawn in September and
October. Fall chum adults enter the rivers in late October through November, and spawn
in November and December. Winter chum adults enter from December through January
and spawn from January through February. Chum salmon fry emerge from the nests in
March and April, and quickly outmigrate to the estuary for rearing. In the estuary,
15
juvenile chum follow prey availability. In Hood Canal, juveniles that arrive in the
estuary in February and March migrate rapidly offshore. This migration rate decreases in
May and June as levels of zooplankton increase. Later as the food supply dwindles,
chum move offshore and switch diets (Simenstad and Salo 1982). Both chum and pink
salmon have similar habitat needs such as unimpeded access to spawning habitat, a stable
incubation environment, favorable downstream migration conditions (adequate flows in
the spring), and because they rely heavily on the estuary for growth, good estuary habitat
is essential.
Chinook salmon have three major run types in Washington State. Spring chinook are
generally in their natal rivers throughout the calendar year. Adults begin river entry as
early as February in the Chehalis, but in Puget Sound, entry doesn't begin until April or
May. Spring chinook spawn from July through September and typically spawn in the
headwater areas where higher gradient habitat exists. Incubation continues throughout
the autumn and winter, and generally requires more time for the eggs to develop into fry
because of the colder temperatures in the headwater areas. Fry begin to leave the gravel
nests in February through early March. After a short rearing period in the shallow side
margins and sloughs, all Puget Sound and coastal spring chinook stocks have juveniles
that begin to leave the rivers to the estuary throughout spring and into summer (August).
Within a given Puget Sound stock, it is not uncommon for other chinook juveniles to
remain in the river for another year before leaving as yearlings, so that a wide variety of
outmigration strategies are used by these stocks. The juveniles of spring chinook salmon
stocks in the Columbia Basin exhibit some distinct juvenile life history characteristics.
Generally, these stocks remain in the basin for a full year. However, some stocks migrate
downstream from their natal tributaries in the fall and early winter into larger rivers,
including the Columbia River, where they are believed to over - winter prior to
outmigration the next spring as yearling smolts.
Adult summer chinook begin river entry as early as June in the Columbia, but not until
August in Puget Sound. They generally spawn in September and/or October. Fall
chinook stocks range in spawn timing from late September through December. All
Washington summer and fall chinook stocks have juveniles that incubate in the gravel
until January through early March, and outmigration downstream to the estuaries occurs
over a broad time period (January through August). A few of these stocks have a
component of juveniles that remain in freshwater for a full year after emerging from the
gravel nests.
While some emerging chinook salmon fry outmigrate quickly, most inhabit the shallow
side margins and side sloughs for up to two months. Then, some gradually move into the
faster water areas of the stream to rear, while others outmigrate to the estuary. Most
summer and fall chinook outmigrate within their first year of life, but a few stocks
(Snohomish summer chinook, Snohomish fall chinook, upper Columbia summer
chinook) have juveniles that remain in the river for an additional year, similar to many
spring chinook (Marshall et al. 1995). However, those in the upper Columbia, have scale
patterns that suggest that they rear in a reservoir -like environment (mainstem Columbia
16
upstream from a dam) rather than in their natal streams and it is unknown whether this is
a result of dam influence or whether it is a natural pattern.
The onset of coho salmon spawning is tied to the first significant fall freshet. They
typically enter freshwater from September to early December, but has been observed as
early as late July and as late as mid - January (WDF et al. 1993). They often mill near the
river mouths or in lower river pools until freshets occur. Spawning usually occurs
between November and early February, but is sometimes as early as mid - October and can
extend into March. Spawning typically occurs in tributaries and sedimentation in these
tributaries can be a problem, suffocating eggs. As chinook salmon fry exit the shallow
low- velocity rearing areas, coho fry enter the same areas for the same purpose. As they
grow, juveniles move into faster water and disperse into tributaries and areas which
adults cannot access (Heave 1949). Pool habitat is important not only for returning adults,
but for all stages of juvenile development. Preferred pool habitat includes deep pools
with riparian cover and woody debris.
All coho juveniles remain in the river for a full year after leaving the gravel nests, but
during the summer after early rearing, low flows can lead to problems such as a physical
reduction of available habitat, increased stranding, decreased dissolved oxygen, increased
temperature, and increased predation. Juvenile coho are highly territorial and can
occupy the same area for a long period of time (Hoar 1958). The abundance of coho can
be limited by the number of suitable territories available (Larkin 1977). Streams with
more structure (logs, undercut banks, etc.) support more coho (Scrivener and Andersen
1982), not only because they provide more territories (useable habitat), but they also
provide more food and cover. There is a positive correlation between their primary diet
of insect material in stomachs and the extent the stream was overgrown with vegetation
(Chapman 1965). In addition, the leaf litter in the fall contributes to aquatic insect
production (Meehan et al. 1977).
In the autumn as the temperatures decrease, juvenile coho move into deeper pools, hide
under logs, tree roots, and undercut banks (Hartman 1965). The fall freshets redistribute
them (Scarlett and Cederholm 1984), and over - wintering generally occurs in available
side channels, spring -fed ponds, and other off - channel sites to avoid winter floods
(Peterson 1980). The lack of side channels and small tributaries may limit coho survival
( Cederholm and Scarlett 1981). As coho juveniles grow into yearlings, they become
more predatory on other salmonids. Coho begin to leave the river a full year after
emerging from their gravel nests with the peak outmigration occurring in early May.
Coho use estuaries primarily for interim food while they adjust physiologically to
saltwater.
Sockeye salmon have a wide variety of life history patterns, including landlocked
populations of kokanee which never enter saltwater. Of the populations that migrate to
sea, adult freshwater entry varies from spring for the Quinault stock, summer for Ozette,
to summer for Columbia River stocks, and summer and fall for Puget Sound stocks.
Spawning ranges from September through February, depending on the stock.
17
After fry emerge from the gravel, most migrate to a lake for rearing, although some types
of fry migrate to the sea. Lake rearing ranges from 1 -3 years. In the spring after lake
rearing is completed, juveniles enter the ocean where more growth occurs prior to adult
return for spawning.
Sockeye spawning habitat varies widely. Some populations spawn in rivers (Cedar
River) while other populations spawn along the beaches of their natal lake (Ozette),
typically in areas of upwelling groundwater. Sockeye also spawn in side channels and
spring -fed ponds. The spawning beaches along lakes provide a unique habitat that is
often altered by human activities, such as pier and dock construction, dredging, and weed
control.
Steelhead have the most complex life history patterns of any Pacific salmonid species
(Shapovalov and Taft 1954). In Washington, there are two major run types, winter and
summer steelhead. Winter steelhead adults begin river entry in a mature reproductive
state in December and generally spawn from February through May. Summer steelhead
adults enter the river from about May through October with spawning from about
February through April. They enter the river in an immature state and require several
months to mature (Burgner et al 1992). Summer steelhead usually spawn farther
upstream than winter stocks (Withler 1966) and dominate inland areas such as the
Columbia Basin. However, the coastal streams support more winter steelhead
populations.
Juvenile steelhead can either migrate to sea or remain in freshwater as rainbow or
redband trout. In Washington, those that are anadromous usually spend 1 -3 years in
freshwater, with the greatest proportion spending two years (Busby et al. 1996). Because
of this, steelhead rely heavily on the freshwater habitat and are present in streams all year
long.
Bull trout/Dolly Varden stocks are also very dependent on the freshwater environment,
where they reproduce only in clean, cold, relatively pristine streams. Within a given
stock, some adults remain in freshwater their entire lives, while others migrate to the
estuary where they stay during the spring and summer. They then return upstream to
spawn in late summer. Those that remain in freshwater either stay near their spawning
areas as residents, or migrate upstream throughout the winter, spring, and early summer,
residing in pools. They return to spawning areas in late summer. In some stocks
juveniles migrate downstream in spring, overwinter in the lower river, then enter the
estuary and Puget Sound the following late winter to early spring (WDFW 1998).
Because these life history types have different habitat characteristics and requirements,
bull trout are generally recognized as a sensitive species by natural resource management
agencies. Reductions in their abundance or distribution are inferred to represent strong
evidence of habitat degradation.
In addition to the above - described relationships between various salmon species and their
habitats, there are also interactions between the species that have evolved over the last
10,000 years such that the survival of one species might be enhanced or impacted by the
18
presence of another. Pink and chum salmon fry are frequently food items of coho smolts,
Dolly Varden char, and steelhead (Hunter 1959). Chum fry have decreased feeding and
growth rates when pink salmon juveniles are abundant (Ivankov and Andreyev 1971),
probably the result of occupying the same habitat at the same time (competition). These
are just a few examples.
Most streams in Washington are home to several salmonid species, which together, rely
upon freshwater and estuary habitat the entire calendar year. As the habitat and salmon
review indicated, there are complex interactions between different habitat components,
between salmon and their habitat, and between different species of salmon. For just as
habitat dictates salmon types and production, salmon contribute to habitat and to other
species.
Introduction to Habitat Impacts
The quantity and quality of aquatic habitat present in any stream, river, lake or estuary is
a reflection of the existing physical habitat characteristics (e.g. depth, structure, gradient,
etc) as well as the water quality (e.g. temperature and suspended sediment load). There
are a number of processes that create and maintain these features of aquatic habitat. In
general, the key processes regulating the condition of aquatic habitats are the delivery and
routing of water (and its associated constituents such as nutrients), sediment, and wood.
These processes operate over the terrestrial and aquatic landscape. For example, climatic
conditions operating over very large scales can drive many habitat forming processes
while the position of a fish in the stream channel can depend upon delivery of wood from
forest adjacent to the stream. In addition, ecological processes operate at various spatial
and temporal scales and have components that are lateral (e.g., floodplain), longitudinal
(e.g., landslides in upstream areas) and vertical (e.g., riparian forest).
The effect of each process on habitat characteristics is a function of variations in local
geomorphology, climatic gradients, spatial and temporal scales of natural disturbance,
and terrestrial and aquatic vegetation. For example, wood is a more critical component of
stream habitat than in lakes, where it is primarily an element of littoral habitats. In
stream systems, the routing of water is primarily via the stream channel and subsurface
routes whereas in lakes, water is routed by circulation patterns resulting from inflow,
outflow and climatic conditions.
Human activities degrade and eliminate aquatic habitats by altering the key natural
processes described above. This can occur by disrupting the lateral, longitudinal, and
vertical connections of system components as well as altering spatial and temporal
variability of the components. In addition, humans have further altered habitats by
creating new processes such as the actions of exotic species. The following sections
identify and describe the major alterations of aquatic habitat that have occurred and why
they have occurred. These alterations are discussed as limiting factors. Provided first
though, is a general description of the current and historic habitat including salmon
populations.
19
A resident char population has been documented above Soleduck Falls (RM 65.5), but its
current status is unknown (Mongillo 1993). There are no known reports of char
downstream of the falls.
Salmon and Steelhead Stock Status in the Hoh Basin
All of the salmon and steelhead stocks within the Hoh are considered to be native with
few introductions of outside stocks (McHenry et al. 1996). The Hoh River
spring/summer chinook stock is considered to be "stable ", and much of its habitat is
located in the relatively undisturbed Olympic National Park. However, some recent
decline has been noted, which is significant because of a lack of response from recent
reductions in northern Canadian ocean fisheries (Jim Jorgensen, Hoh Tribe, personal
observation). Fall chinook were defined as "healthy" by McHenry et al (1996), but
recent information shows a slightly declining terminal adult run, which is more
significant because of a lack of response from recent reductions in northern Canadian
ocean fisheries (Jim Jorgensen, Hoh Tribe, personal observation). A decline of fall
chinook spawners is evident in tributaries (such as Alder and Owl Creeks) and side -
channels of the middle Hoh that have been impacted by sluice -outs and river channel
instability.
Habitat changes in the middle Hoh (the section outside of the Olympic National Park) are
thought to be responsible for declines in coho salmon as well. Coho are the most
abundant salmon in the Hoh, but escapements since 1992 have declined (McHenry et al.
1996). Very low returns occurred in 1993, 1994, and 1997 because of low ocean smolt
survival. Also, in the adjacent Clearwater River, there has been a low number of smolts
per female spawner produced from the 1997 brood escapement, despite low escapement
density, similar to the escapement level in the Hoh River that year (Jim Jorgensen, Hoh
Tribe, personal communication). Fall chum salmon have probably never been numerous
due to the limited estuary, and have shown a long -term decline (McHenry et al. 1996).
The highest catch level of chum in the Hoh was 218 fish.
Hoh winter steelhead are larger -sized and more numerous than summer steelhead
(McHenry et al. 1996). Quinault River steelhead are annually planted in the Hoh basin,
but have an earlier return timing and a heavy exploitation rate which results in minimal
interaction with wild fish. Hoh winter steelhead have been described as "stable ", but
there has been a declining trend since the early 1980s. This trend has been attributed to
poor marine survival (Cooper and Johnson 1992). Less is known about summer
steelhead population levels. They spawn in the upper reaches and population levels are
considered to be naturally lower than winter steelhead due to limited suitable habitat and
competition with winter steelhead (McHenry et al. 1996).
28
The status of char in the Hoh basin is unclear. The largest char population on the
Washington coast was believed to originate from the Hoh basin (Mongillo 1993), but
current levels appear to be low (Brenkman and Meyer 1999).
Fall coho salmon and winter steelhead trout have been documented in Goodman Creek,
Mosquito Creek, Cedar Creek, and Steamboat Creek. The status of these stocks is
unknown, and remains a data need.
29
Table 1. North Coast salmon and steelhead stocks and status.
Stock
Nehlsen et al.
SASSI Status
McHenry et al. 1996
(1991)
(WDFW and WTIT,
Status
1993)
Sooes fall chinook
Unknown ( hatchery
produced)
Sooes fall chum
Unknown
Critical
Sooes /Waatch coho
Unknown
Unknown
Sooes /Waatch winter
Unknown
steelhead
Ozette fall chinook
High risk of
Extinct
Critical
extinction
Ozette fall chum
High risk of
Unknown
Threatened
extinction
Ozette coho
Of special
Unknown
Threatened
concern
Ozette sockeye
Moderate risk
Depressed
Critical
of extinction
Ozette winter steelhead
Unknown
Soleduck spring chinook
Healthy (augmented
by hatchery, non-
native)
30
Soleduck summer chinook
Healthy
Threatened
Soleduck fall chinook
Healthy
Healthy, increasing
trend
Quillayute /Bogachiel
summer chinook
Unknown
Threatened (called
"spring chinook ")
Quillayute/Bogachiel fall
chinook
Healthy
Healthy, increasing
trend
Calawah summer chinook
Unknown
Threatened
Calawah fall chinook
Healthy
Healthy, increasing
trend
Dickey fall chinook
Healthy
Threatened
Quillayute chum
Unknown
Soleduck summer coho
Healthy
Threatened
Dickey fall coho
Healthy
Stable
Soleduck fall coho
Healthy
Stable
Bogachiel fall coho
Healthy
Threatened
Calawah fall coho
Healthy
Threatened
Quillayute sockeye
Unknown
31
Soleduck sum. steelhead
Unknown
Bogachiel summer
Unknown
steelhead
Calawah summer steelhead
Unknown
Quillayute / Bogachiel
Healthy
Healthy, decreasing
winter steelhead
trend
Dickey winter steelhead
Healthy
Threatened
Calawah winter steelhead
Healthy
Stable
Soleduck winter steelhead
Healthy
Stable
Hoh spring /summer
Healthy
Stable (stable, some
chinook
recent decline,
J.Jorgensen)
Hoh fall chinook
Healthy
Healthy, increasing
trend (healthy,
slightly declining
terminal adult run, J.
Jorgensen)
Hoh fall chum
Long -term decline
Hoh fall coho
Healthy
Healthy, decreasing
trend
Hoh summer steelhead
Unknown
32
Hoh winter steelhead
Healthy
Stable (healthy,
decreased
significantly from the
1980s to 1990s, J.
Jorgensen)
Goodman/Mosquito coho
Unknown
Goodman winter steelhead
Unknown
Mosquito winter steelhead
Unknown
33
HABITAT LIMITING FACTORS BY SUB -BASIN
Categories of Habitat Limiting Factors used by the Washington State Conservation
Commission
The following is a list and description of the major habitat limiting factor categories that
are used to organize the Limiting Factors Reports. Although these categories overlap
with each other, such that one habitat problem could impact more than one habitat
limiting factor category, they provide a reasonable structure to assess habitat conditions
within a basin or sub - basin. Within each category are one or more data types that
provide a means to assess each category.
Loss of Access to Spawning and Rearing Habitat
This category includes culverts, tide gates, levees, dams, and other artificial structures
that restrict access to spawning habitat for adult salmonids or rearing habitat for
juveniles. Additional factors considered are low stream flow or temperature conditions
that function as barriers during certain times of the year.
Floodplain Conditions
Floodplains are relatively flat areas adjacent to larger streams and rivers that are
periodically inundated during high flows. In a natural state, they allow for the lateral
movement of the main channel and provide storage for flood waters, sediment, and large
woody debris. Floodplains generally contain numerous sloughs, side - channels, and other
features that provide important spawning habitat, rearing habitat, and refugia during high
flows. Impacts in this category includes direct loss of aquatic habitat from human
activities in floodplains (such as filling), disconnection of main channels from floodplains
with dikes, levees, revetments, and riparian roads, and impeding the lateral movement of
flood flows with dikes, riparian roads, levees, and revetments. Disconnection can also
result from channel incision caused by changes in hydrology or sediment inputs.
Streambed Sediment Conditions
Changes in the inputs of fine and coarse sediment to stream channels can have a broad
range of effects on salmonid habitat. Increases in coarse sediment can create channel
instability and reduce the frequency and volume of pools, while decreases can limit the
availability of spawning gravel. Decreased channel stability is often noted by analyzing
aerial photographs for widespread channel changes or by measuring scour. Increases in
fine sediment can fill in pools, decrease the survival rate of eggs deposited in the gravel
34
(through suffocation), and lower the production of benthic invertebrates. As part of this
analysis, increased sediment input from landslides, roads, agricultural practices,
construction activities is examined as well as decreased gravel availability caused by
dams and floodplain constrictions. This category also assesses instream habitat
characteristics that are related to sedimentation and sediment transport, such as bank
stability and erosion and large woody debris (LWD).
Riparian Conditions
Riparian areas include the land adjacent to streams, rivers, and nearshore environments
that interacts with the aquatic environment. This category addresses factors that limit the
ability of native riparian vegetation to provide shade, nutrients, bank stability, and large
woody debris. Riparian impacts include timber harvest, clearing for agriculture or
development, and direct access of livestock to stream channels. This section also
examines future LWD recruitment, where data are available, and the abundance and
depth of pool habitat.
Water Quality
Water quality factors addressed by this category include stream temperature, dissolved
oxygen, and toxics that directly affect salmonid production. Turbidity is also included,
although the sources of sediment problems are addressed in the streambed sediment
category. In some cases, fecal coliform problems are identified because they may serve
as indicators of other impacts in a watershed, such as direct animal access to streams.
Water Quantity
Changes in flow conditions can have a variety of effects on salmonid habitat. Decreased
low flows can reduce the availability of summer rearing habitat and contribute to
temperature and access problems, while increased peak flows can scour or bury spawning
nests. Other alterations to seasonal hydrology can strand fish or limit the availability of
habitat at various life stages. All types of hydrologic changes can alter channel and
floodplain complexity. This category addresses changes in flow conditions brought about
by water withdrawals, the presence of roads and impervious surfaces, the operation of
dams and diversions, alteration of floodplains and wetlands, and changes in hydrological
maturity (vegetation age).
Estuarine and Nearshore Habitat
This category addresses habitat impacts that are unique to estuarine and nearshore
environments. Estuarine habitat includes areas in and around the mouths of streams
35
extending throughout the area of tidal influence on fresh water. These areas provide
especially important rearing habitat and an opportunity for transition between fresh and
salt water. Impacts include loss of habitat complexity due to filling, dikes, and
channelization; and loss of tidal connectivity caused by tidegates. Nearshore habitat
includes intertidal and shallow subtidal saltwater areas adjacent to land that provide
transportation and rearing habitat for adult and juvenile fish. Important features of these
areas include eelgrass, kelp beds, cover, large woody debris, and the availability of prey
species. Impacts include bulkheads, overwater structures, filling, dredging, and alteration
of sediment processes. Water quality issues of the estuarine or nearshore environment,
such as toxics, dissolved oxygen, and water temperatures are included in this section, as
well as the presence of significant baitfish spawning sites. Also included are habitat
changes that have promoted the increase in opportunistic predators on salmon, such as
marine mammals and birds. The introduction of non - native species specific to the
estuary, such as Spartina, is included in this section.
Lake Habitat
Lakes can provide important spawning and rearing for salmonids. This category includes
impacts that are unique to lake environments, such as the construction of docks and piers,
increases in aquatic vegetation, the application of herbicides to control plant growth and
changes in lakeshore vegetation. Also included are habitat changes that have promoted
the increase in opportunistic predators on salmon, such as squawfish (northern pike
minnow).
Biological Processes
This category addresses impacts to fish brought about by the introduction of exotic plants
and animals and also from the loss of ocean - derived nutrients caused by a reduction in
the amount of available salmon carcasses. It also includes impacts from increased
predation or competition and loss of food -web function due to habitat changes.
Rating Habitat Conditions
The major goal of this project is to identify the habitat conditions that should be restored
or conserved for the best benefit of salmonid production. Often, numerous habitat
degradations can be found within a watershed, and some have a greater impact on
salmonids than others. To help identify the most significant habitat limiting factors, the
Conservation Commission developed a system to rate the above - described habitat
limiting factor categories as "good ", "fair ", or "poor ". This is useful to allow
comparisons of limiting factors within a watershed, as well as provide the same general
standards to rate conditions across the state for this project. These ratings are not
36
intended to be used as thresholds for regulatory purposes. The details and data sources
for the standards are described in the Assessment Chapter.
Habitat Limiting Factors in the Waatch, Sooes, and Ozette Basins
Loss of Access for Anadromous Salmonids in the Sooes, Waatch and Ozette Basins
Data Sources
The Salmonid Screening, Habitat Enhancement and Restoration Division of WDFW
maintains a database on fish passage problems and this was used as a data source
(SSHEAR 1998), as well as the Washington State Department of Transportation list of
barriers (DOT 1999). In addition, professional knowledge by the Technical Advisory
Group (TAG) members led to the inclusion of barriers that were not in the published
databases. Still, this list should be considered incomplete until more surveys are
completed. The amount of habitat blocked was assessed to rate currently known access
conditions. Details of the rating criteria are in the Assessment Chapter of this report.
Access is rated "poor" for the Waatch basin, Thirty Cent Creek (Sooes basin), and Boe
Creek ( Ozette basin). Overall, both the Sooes and Ozette basins rated "fair ". In addition
to the blockages listed below, a hatchery weir on the Sooes River blocks passage of adult
salmon. However, natural escapement is allowed upstream of the weir after hatchery egg
needs are met.
Blockages in the Waatch, Sooes, and Ozette Basins
These blockages should be field verified prior to restoration planning. Priority order was
not assigned.
1) A perched culvert on an unnamed tributary to the Sooes River (NE quarter of sec 34
T32R15W) is a partial blockage to adult coho and steelhead and a total blockage to
juveniles. Blocked habitat includes a large ( >10 acre) wetland and a couple thousand feet
of significant spawning habitat. (Mike Haggerty)
2) Roughly more than 10 acres of wetland and 0.3 miles of 1 -2% gradient stream access
is blocked to coho, steelhead, and cutthroat by a perched pipe at RM 1.01 in a right bank
tributary (Bear Creek, 20.0007) to the Waatch River RM 1.05. (Mike Haggerty)
3) Roughly more than 10 acres of wetland access is blocked to coho and cutthroat by a
perched pipe at the wetland outlet, in stream number 20.0015X at RM 0.08. (Mike
Haggerty)
37
of the lake shores are fairly densely inhabited. Potential impacts of this development
should be examined.
Biological Processes in the Quillayute Basin
The minimum spawning escapement goals for the Quillayute system have been met in all
but 6 years in the last 20 years for fall coho, and all but 2 years in the last 20 years for fall
chinook and steelhead trout (Rayonier 1998, Module F). This results in a "good" rating
for nutrient cycling (see Assessment Chapter for criteria).
Squawfish are present in Dickey Lake, and might be native to the watershed (Rayonier
1998, Module F). However, concern exists that they have expanded distribution
throughout the West Dickey River, and this expansion might be due to warmer water
temperatures, which are preferred by squawfish. Squawfish have been seen as far down
as near the mouth of the Dickey (Warren Scarlett, DNR, personal communication; Dick
Goin, personal communication), and have recently been seen in the East Fork Dickey, an
area where they were not found in the past (Dick Goin, personal communication). The
warm water temperatures are at least partially the result of reduced shade (see Water
Quality section). Squawfish are known predators on juvenile salmonids, and it is
speculated that the low coho smolt production from Dickey Lake is due to Squawfish
predation. The impact of predation on coho salmon in Dickey Lake and the West Dickey
River remains a data need. However, the presence of squawfish in the West Dickey
River is another indicator that warm water temperatures are a major habitat problem, not
only directly effecting salmon production, but also indirectly by providing more ideal
habitat for predators.
Hoh Basin
Loss of Access in the Hoh Basin
There are two major access problems in the Hoh Basin. One is culverts and the other is
caused by cedar spalts. Cedar spalts are waste wood left over from salvage operations.
Large instream accumulations of spalts can block fish passage, impede water flows
leading to warmer water temperatures, and degrade water quality by leaching tanins into
the water.
Table 10 lists streams currently known to be impacted by cedar spalts (Jill Silver, Hoh
Tribe, personal communication). The number of affected feet as well as township, range,
and section numbers are also provided. They are listed in order of impact based upon
these criteria in the following order: 1) stream length affected; 2) stream type (larger
streams have a higher priority); 3) streams in the Hoh drainage had a higher priority than
smaller systems, and 4) those located further downstream had a higher priority (juvenile
81
rearing and over - wintering). Recently, Alder Creek and Hell Roaring Creek were
cleaned of spalts, but continued monitoring after high water events is needed to assure
that the channels have been adequately cleared.
Table 11 lists currently known blocking culverts within the Hoh basin (Jill Silver, Hoh
Tribe, personal communication). These are listed in order of impact based upon 1)
quantity of habitat above culvert and 2) number of species impacted. Some of these
culverts impact only cutthroat trout, and these culverts were listed after the culverts
blocking salmon and steelhead, regardless of quantity of habitat blocked. (This report
generally has not included cutthroat trout issues.)
82
1
Table 10. Hoh Basin Reaches Impacted by Cedar Spalts (Jill Silver, Hoh Tribe, personal
communication).
Stream
Township /Range/
Section
Stream Length
Impacted (feet)
Owner
Fullerton Tributary
26N13W26
6,000
Rayonier
Steamboat Cr.
25N 13 W 10
5,400
Rayonier
Braden Cr.
26N12W30
4,000
State
Cedar Cr.
25N12W6
3,500
Rayonier
Cedar Cr.
26N13W35
3,300
Rayonier
Sand Cr.
25N13W3
2,500
Rayonier
Nolan Cr.
26N12W15
2,000
State
Steamboat Cr.
25N 13 W I 1
2,000
State
Sand Cr.
25N13W11
1,400
State
Clear Cr.
26N11W4
1,300
State
Pins Cr.
26N12W16
1,200
State
Nolan Cr. -
26N12W15
1,100
State
Nolan tr. /Chow
Chow
26N12W24
1,000
Rayonier
Sand Cr.
25N13W12
1,000
State
Nolan Cr\
26N12W19/20
1,000
State
Nolan Cr'
26N12W26
1,000
Rayonier
Nolan Cr. ;
26N12W29
1,000
State
SF Cedar Cr:
25N13W2
1,000
State
'Nolan Cr.
26N12W20
800
State
Nolan Cr.
26N13W24
800
Rayonier
83
Elk Cr.
26N1 1W9
800
State
Clear Cr.
26N11W3
800
State
Sand Cr.
25N13W11
800
Rayonier
SF Cedar Cr.
25N 13 W 1
700
State
olan
26N13W24
600
John Hancock
Lost Cr.
26N12W9
500
John Hancock
Red Cr.
27N1 1W33
500
John Hancock
Cedar C .
26N13W35
500
Avery `80
Sand Cr.
25N 13 W2
500
State
Steamboat Cr.
25N13W9
500
State
:Nolan
26N12W20
400
State
RB Trib to Hoh
27N12W28
300
State
Steamboat Cr.
25N13W11
300
Rayonier
Snell Cr.
27N12W23
300
State
Clear Cr.
26N11W3
300
State
Anderson Cr.
26N 13 W2
200
Rayonier
infield Cr. ,
26N 11 W 5
200
State
84
Table 11. Hoh Basin blocking culverts (Jill Silver, Hoh Tribe, personal communication).
Stream
Township/
Road Name
Stream Length
Species
Impacted (feet)
Impacted
Range/
Section
RB Trib. To Hoh
26N12W06
H. 4060 Rd.
4,000 + 20 acres
Coho
Cottonwood
off - channel
rearing
Dismal Cr.
27NI IW35
Upper Hoh Rd
10,500
Coho, Steelhead,
Cutthroat
LB Trib to Alder Cr.
27N12W23
Upper Hoh Rd
10,500
Coho, Cutthroat
Nolan Creek
26N13W24
N. 1000 Rd.
10,000
Coho, Steelhead,
Cutthroat
RB Trib. To Hoh
26N13W22
8.3 mi on Oil
5,700
Steelhead,
City Rd.
Cutthroat
Braden Cr.
26M12W29
Old Pen Ply Rd.
5,500
Coho, Cutthroat
Nolan
26N12W20
N 1000 Rd. at
5,200
Coho, Steelhead,
Pen Ply Rd.
Cutthroat
RB Trib. To Hoh
26N12W04
Sundowner Lots
Several acres
Coho, Cutthroat
Rd.
off - channel
(2 culverts)
rearing
RB Trib. To Hoh (2
26N12W04
Cottonwood Rd.
Several acres
Coho, Cutthroat
culverts)
off - channel
(Rayonier)
rearing
Canyon Cr.
27NI IW25
9.7 mile Upper
4,800
Steelhead,
Hoh Rd.
Cutthroat
Cassel Cr.
26N12W07
3.5 mi on Oil
4,000
Steelhead,
City Rd.
Cutthroat
RB Trib. To Hoh
27N12W33
0.5 mi on Oil
4,000
Steelhead,
City Rd.
Cutthroat
Mosquito Creek
26N13W10
G 3700 Rd
4,000
Coho, Cutthroat
85
I
V
tl
V
Cedar Cr.
26N12W32
Old Pen Ply Rd.
3,600
Coho, Steelhead,
Cutthroat
RB Trib. To
27N13W16
2.7 mi on G
3,500
Coho, Steelhead,
Goodman Cr.
2100 Rd.
Cutthroat
Rock Cr.
27N11W04
H 3100 Rd.
3,300
Steelhead,
Cutthroat
Cedar Cr. Trib.
26N12W32
N 1130 Rd.
3,000
Coho, Steelhead,
Cutthroat
LB Trib to
27N14W24
G 3300 Rd.
3,000
Coho, Cutthroat
Goodman Cr.
RB Trib to Hoh
26N12W5
Oil City Rd.
2,500
Coho, Cutthroat
Two Culverts
Mosquito Creek
26N13W10
G 3700 Rd
2,500
Coho, Cutthroat
RB Trib to Hoh
26N13W16
H 4500 Rd.
2,500
Steelhead,
Cutthroat
B Trib to
27N14W24
G 3310 Rd.
2,500
Steelhead,
Goodman Cr.
Cutthroat
B Trib to
27N14W24
G 3310 Rd.
2,000.
Coho, Steelhead,
Goodman Cr.
Cutthroat
Nolan Cr.
26N12W22
N 1000 @ N
2,000
Coho, Cutthroat
1060 Rd.
Nolan Cr.
26N12W22
N 1063 Rd.
1,600
Coho, Steelhead,
Cutthroat
RB Trib to
27N13W16
0.3 mi on G
1,500
Coho, Cutthroat
Goodman Cr.
2170 Rd.
Nolan Cr.
26N12W20
2 mi on N 1000
1,300
Coho, Cutthroat
Rd.
Cedar Cr.
26N12W32
Old Pen Ply Rd.
1,000
Possible Coho
RB Trib to Hoh
26N12W06
3 mi on Oil City
4,000
Cutthroat
Rd.
86
SO
J
a
Nolan Cr.
26N12W28
Pen Ply Rd.
3,600
Cutthroat
LB Trib to Pole Cr.
27NI IW27
8.5 mi Upper
3,500
Cutthroat
Hoh Rd.
Elk Creek Trib
26N IW04
Clearwater
3,200
Cutthroat
Mainline
RB Trib to Hoh
26N 13 W 16
0.9 mi on H
2,500
Cutthroat
4500 Rd.
RB Trib to
27N 13 W 15
2.1 mi on G
2,000
Cutthroat
Goodman Cr.
2100 Rd.
RB Trib to Iron
27NIOW31
H 1000 H 1064
1,700
Cutthroat
Maiden
Rds.
Trib to
27N13W15
2.4 mi on G
1,500
Cutthroat
Goodman Cr.
2100 Rd.
RB Trib to Hoh
26N13W15
0.6 mi on H
1,500
Cutthroat
4500 Rd.
RB Trib to Hoh
26N13W16
H 4500 Rd.
1,300
Cutthroat
LB Trib to SF Hoh
27NIOW33
H 1000 Rd at H
1,000
Cutthroat
1070 Rd.
Cedar Cr.
25N12W06
N 1113 Rd.
19000
Cutthroat
RB Trib to
27N13W16
0.1 mi on G
19000
Cutthroat
Goodman Cr.
2170 Rd.
Iota Cr.
27NIOW32
H 1000 Rd. 6.5
700
Cutthroat
mi
Nolan Cr.
26N12W28
Pen Ply Rd.
600
Cutthroat
RB Trib to
27N13W16
2.5 mi on G
500
Cutthroat
Goodman Cr.
2100 Rd.
Hell Roaring Cr.
Numerous
Blockages,
not yet
specified
87
F000dplain Impacts in the Hoh Basin
The Hoh basin has naturally abundant river - floodplain bottom areas, which have channel
complexes that intercept wall -based spring -fed channels, valley -wall, and terrace
tributaries (Jim Jorgensen, Hoh Tribe, personal communication). These often form
networks that often flow parallel to the mainstem for significant distances (Hatten 1991).
The terrace tributaries and other floodplain habitat (wetlands, vegetated depressions,
ponds, etc) are important, stable habitat, particularly as over - wintering habitat for coho
salmon (Peterson and Reid 1984) (Map 7). They are less impacted by storm flows than
newer river meander channels, and have abundant pool habitat, vegetation, and low
gradients. The alluvial floodplain is also the site of significant exchange between
nutrient rich groundwater and surface water, which leads to high levels of productivity in
an unaltered system (Poole and Berman in prep.).
There has been a loss in this type of off - channel habitat (WA DNR in prep.), and
probable degradation of groundwater inputs, which have likely reduced water quality
(John McMillan, Hoh Tribe, personal communication). Also, the quality of this type of
habitat has been degraded, especially from logging in the channel migration zone, which
has resulted in decreased levels of wood, and from increased sedimentation that easily
accumulates in the low water velocity wetlands and off - channel habitat (WA DNR in
prep.). These degraded areas are outlined in Map 7. Given the importance of lateral
habitat in the middle and lower Hoh River, the floodplain habitat should be given a high
restoration and conservation priority.
A common floodplain impact in the Hoh sub -basin is the presence of riparian roads.
Some of these roads closely parallel the streams, acting as dikes, disconnecting potential
off - channel habitat, and increasing sediment inputs into the stream. The most heavily
impacted streams are listed in Table 12. Using the rating criteria outlined in the
Assessment Chapter, several streams rated "poor" for floodplain impact, including Nolan
Creek tributary 20.043 1, the mainstem Hoh River, and Owl Creek. Although the Hoh
River mainstem rated "fair" using the assessment criteria for riparian road impacts, there
is great concern about the impacts from the Upper Hoh Road. This road constricts the
mainstem Hoh River, and has been washed out many times. When the road is damaged,
more river bank armoring has occurred, which further constricts the mainstem Hoh River.
Because of the armoring and road instability, the rating condition for the Hoh River
mainstem was downgraded to "poor ".
Other types of floodplain impact are channel incision and channelization. These
problems have been documented in Owl, Spruce, Alder, Maple, Dry, East Fork Hell
Roaring, and Split Creek, as well as constriction from a bridge in the South Fork Hoh
River (WA DNR in prep.). Streams with these problems have been rated "poor" for
floodplain conditions.
88
Table 12. Riparian Roads in the Hoh Basin.
Stream
Range (RM)
Species Impacted
Habitat Rating
Impacted
Hoh River
0 -1.1, 19.5 -20.2, 44-
Coho, steelhead,
Poor
46, 47.5 -48.7
chinook, sockeye
Nolan Creek
1 -3
Coho, steelhead, fall
Fair
chinook
Nolan trib. 20.0431
0 -1
Coho, steelhead
Poor
Winfield Creek
2 -3.5
Coho, steelhead, fall
Fair
chinook
Owl Creek
0 -1.8
Coho, steelhead, fall
Poor
chinook
Mt. Tom Creek
1.3 -3
Steelhead, coho,
Fair
summer chinook
South Fork Hoh
Numerous crossings
Fall chinook, coho,
Fair
River
steelhead, sockeye
Steamboat Creek
0.1 -1.5
Coho, steelhead
Fair
Goodman Creek contains a high density of wetlands, indicating high ground -water inputs
(Jill Silver, Hoh Tribe, personal communication). However surveys are needed within
the Goodman Creek basin to determine fish use and access.
Streambed Sediment Conditions in the Hoh Basin
While the upper Hoh lies within the Olympic National Park and the lower Hoh within the
Hoh Indian Reservation, the middle Hoh is surrounded by private landowners and
Washington DNR land, and is the location of numerous impacts to salmonids. In the
Huelsdonk Ridge area of the middle Hoh, landslides have increased 6 -7 times over
historic levels with the increase associated with clearcutting (63 %) and roads (27 %)
(Schlichte 1991). Debris flows are common in the Hoh sub - basin, scouring channels and
transporting gravel and LWD downstream (WA DNR in prep). Debris flows have also
resulted in a reduction of macroinvertebrates, food web items for salmonids. Populations
of macroinvertebrates are 75% higher in the Olympic National Park reaches compared to
areas impacted by debris flows (McHenry 1991).
RIM
The increased transport of gravel due to debris flows has resulted in reaches where
spawning gravels are limited. These include: Alder, Willoughby, Spruce, Canyon, and
Split Creeks, streams important for steelhead and cutthroat trout as well as coho salmon
(WA DNR in prep.). These streams rated "poor" for sediment quantity.
The quality of spawning gravels has been degraded by increased fine sediment from mass
wasting and road erosion. Extremely high levels of fines have been documented in Iron
Maiden Creek (57 %) and Canyon Springs Creek (45 %), which were sampled the summer
after landslides occurred in the area (WA DNR in prep.). Sediment from Iron Maiden
Creek delivers to sensitive side channel habitat. Fines were also rated "poor" in Spruce
(20 %), and Brandenberry (21 %) (WA DNR in prep.), as well as in Lost Creek (21 %)
(Cederholm and Scarlett 1997). "Fair" (11 -17 %) levels of fines were in Alder, Elk, and
Split Creeks (WA DNR in prep.) and in Anderson, and Braden (Cederholm and Scarlett
1997). Boundary Creek was noted for high sediment delivery to the mainstem Hoh (WA
DNR in prep.).
Another sedimentation issue in the Hoh basin relates to channel incision caused by a lack
of LWD and increased sediment transport. The incision has exposed unstable clay layers
that release fine sediments into the streams (Jill Silver, Hoh Tribe, personal
communication). Aggradation and excessive sedimentation has been observed in Owl
and Nolan Creeks, and these have been rated "poor" for sediment quantity (Dick Goin,
personal communication).
Road density is directly related to the volume of fine sediment transported via
precipitation runoff. Road densities were either "good" or "fair ", using the standards
described in the Assessment Chapter. In Anderson, Braden, Lost, and Winfield Creeks,
road densities were "good ", while in Alder, Elk, Nolan, Owl, Pins, and Willoughby
Creeks, the road densities were fair (Cederholm and Scarlett 1997). None of the
watersheds examined were classified as "poor" for road density.
Stream bank erosion has occurred in areas impacted by cedar spalt dams. As the dams
float up and down in high and low flows, they carve the stream banks and increase fine
sediments (Jill Silver, Hoh Tribe, personal communication). Currently impacted streams
include Braden, Clear, Red, Lost, Pins, Snell, Anderson, Winfield, Willoughby, and
Nolan Creeks in the Hoh basin as well as in Cedar, South Fork Cedar, Sands, and
Steamboat Creeks. These streams were rated "poor" for sediment quantity.
Channel changes have greatly altered some of the middle Hoh tributaries. Scour in Owl
Creek has impacted Chinook salmon spawning habitat (WA DNR in prep.), and Spruce,
Willoughby, and upper Alder Creeks no longer support coho salmon spawning due to
mass wasting impacts. The mainstem Hoh River has changed in recent years as well
(Dick Goin, personal communication). These streams are rated "poor" for channel
stability.
In general, "good" LWD conditions are found in the upper Hoh and upper South Fork
Hoh Rivers and tributaries, which are located within the Olympic National Park (Map 5b)
90
(John Meyer, Olympic National Park, personal communication). "Poor" LWD
conditions are found throughout the remainder of the Hoh basin, with the exception of
"fair" conditions in lower Willoughby Creek and "good conditions in upper Hell Roaring
Creek (Map 5b) (Hatten 1994; Cederholm and Scarlett 1997; WA DNR in prep.).
Of special note is Owl Creek where counts of LWD are high, but most is non - functional,
located outside of the ordinary bankfull width. Because of the location of LWD within
Owl Creek, it was rated "poor" in this report. In addition, the larger key pieces of LWD
were low in Anderson, Braden, Elk, Lost, Nolan, Pins, and Winfield, even though total
number of pieces (small and large) were within acceptable range ( Cederholm and Scarlett
1997). Because of the lack of key pieces, these streams were rated "poor ". Several of
these streams also had many of the LWD pieces located outside the wetted channel.
The lack of LWD has not only contributed to channel incision and instability, but has also
resulted in reduced spawning gravel quantity, reduced pool habitat, and reduced ability of
ground water and surface waters to mix. Very large pieces of woody debris are
particularly important for the steep headwall tributaries of the Hoh (Jill Silver, Hoh Tribe,
personal communication). Larger pieces are the only type of wood that will contribute to
channel formation in these reaches. They also are important as nutrient dams and in
maintaining genetic diversity of resident salmonids by effectively isolating populations.
While specific habitat survey data are lacking for the Goodman Creek basin, biologists
have noted that from the G -2108 road to the bridge on G -3000, there is a lack of LWD
and spawning gravel and there are signs of scour (Jill Silver, Hoh Tribe, personal
communication). Reaches of the basin that are within the Olympic National Park have an
old growth riparian and are rated "good" for instream LWD.
Riparian Conditions in the Hoh Basin
Historically the Hoh riparian consisted of old growth western hemlock and Sitka Spruce
with lesser amounts of western red Cedar and Douglas fir (WA DNR in prep.). Natural
disturbances of the riparian include wind, landslides, flooding and fire. Hurricane force
winds occur in the region about every 20 years and especially impact southern exposure
and flat - terrace areas such as Hell Roaring, Alder, Willoughby, Tower, Spruce, Canyon,
Winfield and Elk Creeks. Many of these wind - damaged areas have regenerated with
western hemlock or red alder (WA DNR in prep.). Natural landslides are common with
debris flows noted in all major watersheds except Hell Roaring Creek. Flooding is
common along the mainstem Hoh River, South Fork Hoh River, Winfield Creek, Elk
Creek, and Alder Creek. Fire was a historic disturbance, but has been less frequent in the
last 700 years due to climate changes.
In general, "good" riparian conditions are found in the upper Hoh and upper South Fork
Hoh Rivers and tributaries, which are located within the Olympic National Park (Map 6b)
(John Meyer, Olympic National Park, personal communication). The lower South Fork
Hoh mainstem has a "fair" riparian, while nearby tributaries are "fair" to "good" (WA
91
DNR in prep.). Most of the mainstem Hoh River downstream of the South Fork has
"poor" riparian conditions, as well as Pins Creek, lower Winfield Creek, lower Elk
Creek, middle Willoughby Creek, Maple Creek, and several unnamed tributaries (Map
6c) (Jill Silver, Hoh Tribe, personal communication; WA DNR in prep.). "Good"
riparian conditions were noted in Nolan, Anderson, Lost, lower Hell Roaring, upper
Alder, upper Winfield, upper Elk, Owl, and some unnamed creeks. "Fair" conditions
exist in Canyon, Spruce, lower Alder, upper Hell Roaring, and Braden Creeks (Map 6c).
Near -term LWD recruitment potential is poor throughout about 72% of the middle Hoh
WAU (WA DNR in prep.). The worst tributaries for near -term LWD recruitment
potential are: the South Fork Hoh River, Winfield Creek, Willoughby Creek, Tower
Creek, Owl Creek, and Elk Creek. These were logged before adequate riparian buffers
were required, and many were logged to the stream banks.
The quantity of pool habitat is "poor" in Owl, Willoughby, and Anderson Creeks, and
"good" in Braden, Elk, Lost, and Pins Creek (Cederholm and Scarlett 1997). "Fair" pool
habitat was documented in Alder, and Nolan Creeks, while deep pools (all less than 1/3
m) are lacking in upper Winfield Creek, which contributed to a high mortality of
salmonids in August, 1999 (John McMillan, Hoh Tribe, personal communication).
In the Goodman Creek basin, there is a lack of deep pools and an alder- dominated
riparian zone in the middle section of the mainstem (Jill Silver, Hoh Tribe, personal
communication). This section is rated "poor" for this report. Reaches of the basin that
are within the Olympic National Park have an old growth riparian and are rated "good"
for riparian conditions.
In areas impacted by cedar spalts, the wood often covers the ground of the riparian zone,
inhibiting further plant growth (Jill Silver, Hoh Tribe, personal communication). These
impacted areas include Anderson, Willoughby, Winfield, Nolan, Braden, Clear, Red,
Lost, Pins, and Snell Creeks in the Hoh basin, as well as Cedar Creek, Sands Creek,
South Fork Cedar Creek, and Steamboat Creek. While small areas are impacted in
Anderson, Red, Lost, and Snell Creeks, considerably quantities of habitat (see Access
chapter) was impacted in all other areas, and these were rated as "poor" for riparian
conditions.
Water Quality in the Hoh Basin
Several tributaries to the Hoh River are on the 1998 Candidate 303(d) list because of high
water temperatures (Figure 8) (DOE 1998). Fisher, Willoughby, Rock, Elk, Canyon,
Anderson, Alder, Line, Maple, Nolan, Owl, Split, Tower, and Winfield Creeks were
listed in 1996, and are also on the 1998 Candidate 303(d) for high water temperatures.
Most of these are located in the middle Hoh between Highway 101 and the confluence
with the South Fork Hoh River. Line, Fisher, and Split Creeks are tributaries to the
lower South Fork Hoh River, and Nolan and Anderson Creeks are in the lower Hoh
region. Because of the Candidate 303(d) recommendation, all of these streams are rated
92
as "poor" in water quality. In August, 1999, the conditions in Winfield Creek were so
poor that extensive salmonid mortality occurred (John McMillan, Hoh Tribe, personal
communication). Water temperatures ranged from 16 -19 °C and dissolved oxygen ranged
from 3 -5 mg/L in the area that dead salmonids were found. In this area, the flows
frequently go subsurface, and to what extent the subsurface flow is natural is unknown.
Streams impacted by cedar spalts have water quality problems such as low dissolved
oxygen, very high acidity, and high water temperatures (Jill Silver, Hoh Tribe, personal
communication). Monitoring results showed that dissolved oxygen levels above spalt
dams ranged from 3.5 mg/L to 6 mg/L, compared to significantly higher dissolved
oxygen levels below spalt dams and to the standard of 9.5 mg/L. Water temperatures
were 4 to 5 °C warmer in the areas above the spalt dams compared to free flowing
reaches. These water conditions appear to result in a lack of aquatic invertebrates that
fish need for food and are the likely reason that salmonids were not found in the spalt
dammed areas (Jill Silver, Hoh Tribe, personal communication). Currently impacted
streams include Winfield Creek, Braden Creek, Clear Creek, Nolan Creek, Red Creek,
Lost Creek, Pins Creek, Snell Creek, Anderson Creek and Willoughby Creek in the Hoh
basin, and Steamboat Creek, Cedar Creek, Sands Creek and South Fork Cedar Creek in
the small independent streams. These streams were rated as "poor" for water quality
because of the cedar spalt impact.
In addition to spalts, the water quality problems in the Hoh basin might be a result of
alterations to the alluvial aquifers (John McMillan, Hoh Tribe, personal communication).
It has been shown in other basins that up to 90% of the watershed's productivity is
derived from alluvial aquifers, which support rich populations of invertebrates, such as
stoneflies, as well as vertebrates. As runoff and nutrients distribute from the steep upland
slopes to the low gradient floodplain, the groundwater and surface waters mix to form
areas of high productivity, particularly in the summer low flows when warm surface
waters mix with nutrient -rich cool water. The alluvial aquifers contribute not only to
productivity in the complex floodplain of the Hoh, but also cools water temperatures in
the summer and slightly warms surface water in the winter (Poole and Berman in prep.).
Removal of upland vegetation decreases the infiltration of groundwater on hillslopes,
reducing baseflows in streams and therefore, reducing productivity and water temperature
buffering. Excessive sedimentation (see the Streambed Sediment section) can also
degrade the floodplain complex (Poole and Berman in prep).
Water Quantity in the Hoh Basin
The mainstem and South Fork Hoh Rivers are glacier -fed. While peak flows occur in
November and December, the average daily flows are greatest in June because of glacial
melt (Ryan and Prigge in prep.). Low flows typically occur in August and September.
The glacial melt also results in diurnal changes that create dynamic flows and channel
patterns. A change has been noticed in the glacial melt to the South Fork Hoh. About 7-
8 years ago, the glacial influence greatly decreased in the South Fork Hoh, which is likely
93
resulting in lower flows and more vulnerable conditions for spring chinook (Dick Goin,
personal communication).
The trend of peak flows has increased from the 1960s, but when that increase is corrected
for precipitation levels, there is no significant difference between the current and historic
(1960s) peak flows. Precipitation levels are expected to be higher in the near future due
to a probable switch in the Pacific Decadal Oscillation (Mantua 1997). These climate
shifts occur every 20 -30 years, and scientists believe that we have just switched from a
warmer, drier regime to a wetter, cooler phase.
Road density not only correlates to an increase in debris flows within the Hoh basin, but
the volume of mid -slope roads correlates with increases in peak flows (John McMillan,
Hoh Tribe, personal communication). LaMarche and Lettenmaier (1998) reported a
similar relationship between road hillslope position and peak flows in four other
drainages. The effects of roads on increased flow is independent of quantity of forest
harvest, but when both activities are combined, the model developed by La Marche and
Lettenmaier (1998) showed an increase in I0 -year return floods of 21 %.
The middle Hoh has high percentages of watersheds that are hydrologically immature
( <30 years old). The levels of hydrologic immaturity are: Braden (79 %), Anderson
(67 %), Nolan (64 %), Elk (61 %), Owl (58 %), Alder and Winfield (55 %), Willoughby
(54 %), Lost (46 %) and Pins (43 %) Creeks (Cederholm and Scarlett 1997). Levels at or
above 60% are rated "poor" for water quantity (see Assessment Chapter for details),
which results in "poor" ratings for Braden, Anderson, Nolan, and Elk Creeks. The
vegetation loss contributes to peak flows, and can also increase the effects of roads on
peak flows by increasing the volume of sub - surface flow intercepted by the cutslopes (La
Marche and Lettenmaier 1998).
The loss of vegetation has thought to decrease the aquifer and wetland storage capacity
by disconnecting the wetland hydrologic continuity and altering upland water infiltration
and groundwater recharge (Poole and Berman in prep.). Increased sediment delivery (see
the Streambed Sediment section) has widened and reduced the depth of many stream
channels, worsening the impacts of altered stream flow.
Tributaries in the Hoh basin frequently go subsurface in their headwaters, some of which
may have naturally occurred, but to what degree is unknown. In upper Winfield Creek, a
large quantity of salmonids died in the summer of 1999 because of low flow, low
dissolved oxygen and high water temperatures (all interrelated problems) (John
McMillan, Hoh Tribe, personal communication). This problem would be lessened by the
presence of thermal refuges such as deep pools.
Another potential impact on summer low flows is the loss of large trees that can collect
fog drip. Large trees collect moisture from fog, especially Sitka spruce zones (U.S.
Forest Service 1995). Fog drip contributed an estimated 35% of the annual precipitation
under the old growth canopy (Norse, 1990). The potential effect of vegetation loss on
fog drip and decreased summer stream flows is a data need.
94
Low flow measurements aren't currently available, but summer low flows in the
Goodman Creek mainstem have been identified as a concern (Phinney and Bucknell
1975). The Goodman Creek basin contains a high density of wetlands, indicating high
ground waters inputs (Jill Silver, Hoh Tribe, personal communication).
Biological Processes in the Hoh Basin
The Hoh sub -basin rated "poor" for biological processes, although using the criteria in
the Assessment Chapter, nutrient cycling rated "good ". Escapement goals for fall
chinook, spring/summer chinook, and winter steelhead are often met (McHenry et al.
1996). In recent years, fall coho escapement has declined and this is a concern. Also,
levels of fall chum have declined compared to the past, but no escapement goals have
been established for this stock.
The "poor" rating is the result of other problems. One is a reduced level of
macroinvertebrates in areas impacted by spalts. Macroinvertebrates serve as food for
juvenile salmonids. The areas of impact are in the Hoh, Steamboat, and Cedar basins.
Specific locations are listed in the access section for the Hoh basin.
Another problem is the decline of beaver populations. Beaver ponds supplement summer
low flows and provide over - wintering habitat for salmonids. The ponds fill with
sediments, creating wetlands to support macroinvertebrates. They also trap nutrients that
contribute to ecosystem function.
Estuary and Near Shore Conditions for WRIA 20
The north coast of Washington State is characterized by rugged headlands (such as Cape
Flattery, Cape Alava, and Hoh Head) and cliffs separated by pocket beaches. In contrast
to the sandy beaches along the south coast of Washington, the habitat north of Point
Grenville is a mix of rock, gravel, and sand. The pocket beaches lie in a more protected
environment than the southern coast beaches. Because of that, there are less substrate
shifts and more organic materials in the sand (U.S. Dept. Commerce 1993). In protected
coves such as Cape Alava and Cedar Creek, boulder and cobble comprise the substrate
(Figure 10). These support a greater diversity of organisms compared to the sandy
substrates to the south.
The Olympic Coast National Sanctuary is located within the near shore habitat of this
WRIA. It encompasses 2500 square nautical miles from the U.S. /Canada boundary south
to the southern boundary of the Copalis National Wildlife Refuge, and extends about 30-
40 miles offshore.
The near shore area is influenced by the Columbia River. The Columbia River outflow
forms a low - salinity plume that extends along the Washington coast in the winter. In the
95
HABITAT IN NEED OF PROTECTION
Recommendations
Hoh Basin:
The Hoh basin has naturally abundant river - floodplain bottom areas, which have channel
complexes that intercept wall -based spring -fed channels, valley -wall, and terrace
tributaries. These are important, stable habitat, particularly as over - wintering habitat for
coho salmon (Peterson and Reid 1984) (Map 7). They are less impacted than newer river
meander channels by storm flows, and have abundant pool habitat, vegetation, and low
gradients. The alluvial floodplain is also the site of significant exchange between
nutrient rich groundwater and surface water, which leads to high levels of productivity in
an unaltered system (Poole and Berman in prep.). Below is a prioritized list of floodplain
complexes that need protection and conservation. They were prioritized based upon
relative importance to coho production followed by chinook spawning (Jim Jorgensen,
Hoh Tribe, personal communication). Separate priorities are given for areas downstream
of the Olympic National Park and those within Park boundaries.
Downstream of the Olympic National Park (RM 29.9):
1) Elk Creek Floodplain, extensive side - channel complexes fed by springs, terrace
tributaries and Elk Creek, a valley -wall tributary, left bank (looking downstream)
immediately above the mouth of Winfield Creek (RM —17 -18.5.
2) Braden Creek Floodplain Side - Channel Complex fed by springs and Braden Creek,
left bank near RM 3 -4.5.
3) Nolan Creek River Bottom, extensive set of side - channels, spring -fed and terrace fed
tributaries and ponds, one spring -fed channel is a recent WDFW project that
reclaimed an old filled -in dry river swale by a major excavation, left bank,
immediately above Nolan Creek extending approximately 1.5 miles upriver near RM
5 -6.5.
4) Cottonwood Bottom, spring -fed pond channel, right bank near RM 12 -12.9.
5) Domrud Pond, spring -fed pond channel, left bank at Peterson's property (RM -19).
6) Pins Creek Floodplain Bottom, ponded old river channel for lower 1.0 miles fed by
Pins Creek, left bank tributary (RM —7).
7) Anderson Reach River Bottom, extensive set of channels with furthest downstream
being a WDFW habitat enhancement pond, right bank near RM 13.5 -15.
121
8) Crippen Homestead /Bradenbarry Lots Floodplain, running from the junction of the
North Fork and the South Fork Hoh downriver 1 mile. It begins as a terrace with an
overflow and spring -fed channel 0.3 miles up the South Fork, continuing downriver
to connect with a series of terrace and small valley -wall mainstem tributaries draining
an area developed as recreational lots. This is located on the left bank near RM 29 -30
on the mainstem Hoh River and up to RM 0.3 on the South Fork Hoh River.
9) Clear Creek and Young Slough River Bottom, protected spring -fed areas which
provide habitat during higher flows. One 2000 foot channel reclaimed from dry
channel swale by WDFW excavation, left bank near RM 22.9 -24.5.
10) Lewis Channel complex, one main 1500 foot spring -fed channel reclaimed from dry
channel Swale under WDNR habitat project excavation, which is connected to other
less protected spring -fed side - channels, right bank at RM 29 -29.5.
11) Dismal Creek Pond River Bottom Complex, several terrace ponds plus a private
timber company -owned gravel pit formed into an overwintering pond by WDFW,
right bank near RM 26 -27, between Spruce Canyon and Owl Creek.
Area on the South Fork of the Hoh River (a left bank tributary of the Hoh River at RM
30.0):
12) Lower South Fork complex, right bank for 1 mile above the bridge at RM 1.
Inside the Olympic National Park on the mainstem Hoh river above the South Fork
confluence and on the South Fork Hoh above RM 3:
1) Taft Creek Floodplain, a spring -fed channel complex with a large pond at mouth,
right bank near RM 35.3 -36.3 of main Hoh River.
2) Big Flat, 4 -5 spring -fed side - channel complexes, both banks near RM 6 -9.5 on the
South Fork Hoh.
3) Mt. Tom Springs, spring -fed channel complexes and a small pond, left bank at RM
38 -38.5 on the main Hoh.
4) WRIA 20.0530 Creek, 1.5 mild side - channel fed by springs and a small valley -wall
tributary, left bank near RM 47 -48.5 of main Hoh.
5) Brocolli Side - Channel Complex, left bank near RM 42 -43.5 of the main Hoh.
6) WRIA 20.0509 Creek, side - channel fed by valley -wall tributary and small wall -based
side - channel, left bank near RM 32 -32.5 of the main Hoh.
122
RECOMMENDATIONS AND DATA GAPS FOR WRIA 20 HABITAT
LIMITING FACTORS
Recommendations for Salmonid Habitat Restoration Actions in WRIA 20
The known, current salmon and steelhead habitat conditions for WRIA 20 have been
identified and assessed as either "good ", "fair ", or "poor ". In addition, the impacts,
sources of impact, and species impacted have been described, whenever possible in the
Habitat Limiting Factors Chapter. Some of the major factors have also been mapped to
show the extent of the conditions. Based upon this assessment, the following
recommendations for habitat improvements and protection are listed by type of factor.
Access
• New structures should be sized to reflect expected increased flows. The next 20 -30
cycle is expected to bring increased precipitation, which will lead to greater flows.
• Address blockages to salmon and steelhead habitat throughout WRIA 20, especially
where "poor" ratings have been identified (see Assessment Chapter Table 4).
Clean streams impacted by spalts, which not only prevent salmon from accessing
habitat, but also degrade water quality and impact riparian habitat, macroinvertebrate
production, and contribute to bank erosion. Streams impacted by spalts include
Winfield Creek, Braden Creek, Clear Creek, Nolan Creek, and Red Creek in the Hoh
basin. Other basins needing cleaning are Sand Creek, Steamboat Creek, and Cedar
Creek.
Floodplains
• Floodplain habitat is especially important in the Hoh basin. Efforts to purchase intact
floodplain habitat for conservation should be a high priority.
• Large wood within the floodplain should not be removed. Increase enforcement of
current regulations is needed.
• Maintain and conserve off - channel habitat and associated riparian. More protection is
needed for floodplain habitat, especially from development.
• Reduced beaver activity impacts rearing habitat. Beaver populations should not be
further impacted.
124
• LWD should be increased in "poor" rated areas to allow sediments to accumulate for
reconnection of incised channels to their floodplain.
• Reduce riparian roads (the best option for salmon), or at least reduce their impacts by
improving surfacing materials.
Streambed and Sediment Issues
• LWD should be increased in "poor" rated areas, and in the Hoh and Bogachiel off -
channel habitat where clay seams have been accessed by channel incision.
• Increase road drainage and route road sediments to the forest floor rather than to
stream channels.
• Decommission side -cast roads.
• Improve road surfacing to reduce sediment inputs into streams.
Ri arian
• Revegetate open riparian areas with native plants, including conifer.
• Banks should be disturbed as little as possible to avoid disruption of
macroinvertebrate populations.
• Increased protection to riparian areas prone to windthrow is greatly needed. Current
windthrow data specific to the north coastal streams should be used to guide harvest
in these areas.
• Although new forestry regulations will provide much better conditions, riparian areas
that have already been degraded need to be restored.
• Riparian surrounding wetlands should be protected to insure ground water recharge.
Water Quality
• Increase instream LWD to aid in nutrient cycling (salmonid carcass capturing) and
pool development.
• Improve riparian conditions to increase shade and decrease current high summer
water temperatures. Riparian conditions around wetlands should be restored and
125
protected. This will help maintain lower water temperatures for water that will
recharge streams.
• Water quality problems need to be addressed in Lake Creek. This stream is important
for salmon habitat, but is impacted by residential development, failing septic systems,
water withdrawals, and other human impacts.
• Address sediment sources to reduce channel widening and higher water temperatures.
Water Quantity
The water velocity in the Quillayute River needs to be reduced in peak flow events,
and the TAG recommends using an engineered natural model to reduce water
velocity.
• Examine ways to reduce water rights within the Soleduck basin.
Estuary and Near Shore
• Protect surf smelt spawning areas (near the mouth of the Quillayute River).
• Reduce bank armoring in the lower reaches of the rivers and in the estuaries.
• Estuarine habitat is naturally very limited in WRIA 20. Current estuary habitat
should be protected against dredging, filling, contaminants, and other impacts.
Data Needs for Salmonid Habitat Assessments in WRIA 20
This report was limited in its ability to clarify and prioritize impacts because of key data
gaps. The following is a list of data needs that have been identified by the TAG. These
data would greatly aid in developing effective recovery plans and to monitor the
effectiveness of salmon habitat projects. The studies will also help better identify habitat
limiting factors for salmonid production in the future.
Fish Distribution and Stock Status
• More complete salmon and trout distribution data are needed, especially for the
Goodman basin. Adult and juvenile presence needs to be documented.
• Mapping and typing of all streams and wetlands in the Goodman Creek and
Bogachiel basins is needed to identify where habitat protection is necessary.
126
• Potential distribution maps should be developed (maps showing where probable
salmon and steelhead habitat is location).
• Stock trend information is needed for Sooes and Waatch coho and steelhead, Ozette
steelhead, and Goodman and Mosquito Creek coho and steelhead.
• Measurements that link fish production to freshwater and estuary conditions.
Access
• Surveys for blockages to salmonids are needed for the Bogachiel and Calawah basins,
as well as for Goodman and Cedar Creeks. Cedar Creek has been partially surveyed,
and needs the private roads added.
• Surveys are also needed for the Hoh basin. It is estimated that only half of the
blockages have been identified.
Floodplains
• Assessments are needed to map the entire channel migration zone /100 year floodplain
throughout WRIA 20. This will help enforce regulations to protect shoreline habitat.
• Floodplain mapping is needed in all basins in WRIA 20. This should include soil
mapping and elevation measurements.
• Baseline profiles should be maintained to monitor channel incision and aggradation.
• Stream mapping and typing need to be updated within WRIA 20.
Streambed and Sediment Issues
• Road surveys are needed throughout WRIA 20 to determine the best places for cross
drains.
• A study is needed to assess whether road decommissioning really helps reduce
sediment impacts on salmonids.
• Instream large woody debris data are needed for the Bogachiel, Lake Ozette
tributaries, Sooes, and Waatch basins.
127
Riparian
• The studies of windthrow effects specific to the north Washington Coast need to be
completed and published.
• Riparian data (tree species and age) need to be analyzed for the Bogachiel, Lake
Ozette tributaries, Sooes, and Waatch basins.
Water OualitX
• A study is needed to determine the effect of spalts on water quality and salmonid
impacts. This should include measurements of dissolved oxygen, acidity,
temperature, and macroinvertebrate populations.
• Potential water quality impacts from mills located along river banks need to be
assessed.
Water Quantity
• Studies are needed to determine the effects of upland vegetation removal on increased
fine sediment levels in the alluvial aquifers of floodplain watersheds.
• Studies are needed to assess the effect of reduced hydrologic maturity on salmon
habitat.
• More flow gauging is needed within WRIA 20, particularly for both tributaries and
mainstems.
• Studies to determine the contribution of fog drip to summer flows are needed for
WRIA 20.
• Effects to and from hyporheic zones should be investigated. Wells should be
installed to monitor nutrient cycling.
Biological Processes
• Inventory macroinvertebrates to assess the abundance and diversity of "fish food ".
128
Estuary and Near Shore
• An analysis similar to watershed analysis is needed for the Quillayute River. The
emphasis should be on sedimentation and its upland sources, as well as the effects of
bank protection and dredging on salmonid habitat.
• A study examining the role of small estuaries on salmonid use in needed in this
WRIA.
• Studies are needed to quantify the points made in this report, especially those issues
expressed by aerial photographs.
• The causes of toxic algal blooms should be examined in the near shore waters of
WRIA 20.
• The effects of sedimentation on kelp beds in the near shore environments is a data
need.
129
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GLOSSARY
Adaptive management: Monitoring or assessing the progress toward meeting objectives
and incorporating what is learned into future management plans.
Adfluvial: Life history strategy in which adult fish spawn and juveniles subsequently
rear in streams, but migrate to lakes for feeding as subadults and adults. Compare fluvial.
Aggradation: The geologic process of filling and raising the level of the streambed or
floodplain by deposition of material eroded and transported from other areas.
Anadromous fish: Species that are hatched in freshwater mature in saltwater, and return
to freshwater to spawn.
Aquifer: Water- bearing rock formation or other subsurface layer.
Basin: The area of land that drains water, sediment and dissolved materials to a common
point along a stream channel.
Basin flow: Portion of stream discharge derived from such natural storage sources as
groundwater, large lakes, and swamps but does not include direct runoff or flow from
stream regulation, water diversion, or other human activities.
Bioengineering: Combining structural, biological, and ecological concepts to construct
living structures for erosion, sediment, or flood control.
Biological Diversity (biodiversity): Variety and variability among living organisms and
the ecological complexes in which they occur; encompasses different ecosystems,
species, and genes.
Biotic Integrity: Capability of supporting and maintaining a balanced, integrated,
adaptive community of organisms having a species composition, diversity, and functional
organization comparable to that of natural habitat of the region; a system's ability to
generate and maintain adaptive biotic elements through natural evolutionary processes.
Biological oxygen demand: Amount of dissolved oxygen required by decomposition of
organic matter.
Braided stream: Stream that forms an interlacing network of branching and recombining
channels separated by branch islands or channel bars.
Buffer: An area of intact vegetation maintained between human activities and a particular
natural feature, such as a stream. The buffer reduces potential negative impacts by
providing an area around the feature that is unaffected by this activity.
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Carrying capacity: Maximum average number or biomass of organisms that can be
sustained in a habitat over the long term. Usually refers to a particular species, but can be
applied to more than one.
Channelization: Straightening the meanders of a river; often accompanied by placing
riprap or concrete along banks to stabilize the system.
Channelized stream: A stream that has been straightened, runs through pipes or
revetments, or is otherwise artificially altered from its natural, meandering course.
Channel Stability: Tendency of a stream channel to remain within its existing location
and alignment.
Check dams: Series of small dams placed in gullies or small streams in an effort to
control erosion. Commonly built during the 1900s.
Confluence: Joining.
Connectivity: Unbroken linkages in a landscape, typified by streams and riparian areas.
Critical Stock: A stock of fish experiencing production levels that are so low that
permanent damage to the stock is likely or has already occurred.
Depressed Stock: A stock of fish whose production is below expected levels based on
available habitat and natural variations in survival levels, but above the level where
permanent damage to the stock is likely.
Debris torrent: Rapid movements of material, including sediment and woody debris,
within a stream channel. Debris torrents frequently begin as debris slides on adjacent
hillslopes.
Degradation: The lowering of the streambed or widening of the stream channel by
erosion. The breakdown and removal of soil, rock and organic debris.
Deposition: The settlement of material out of the water column and onto the streambed.
Distributaries: Divergent channels of a stream occurring in a delta or estuary.
Diversity: Variation that occurs in plant and animal taxa (i.e., species composition),
habitats, or ecosystems. See species richness.
Ecological restoration: Involves replacing lost or damaged biological elements
(populations, species) and reestablishing ecological processes (dispersal, succession) at
historical rates.
Ecosystem: Biological community together with the chemical and physical environment
with which it interacts.
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Ecosystem management: Management that integrates ecological relationships with
sociopolitical values toward the general goal of protecting or returning ecosystem
integrity over the long term.
Endangered Species Act: A 1973 Act of Congress that mandated that endangered and
threatened species of fish, wildlife and plants be protected and restored.
Endangered Species: Means any species which is in endanger of extinction throughout all
or a significant portion of its range other than a species of the Class Insecta as determined
by the Secretary to constitute a pest whose protection under would provide an
overwhelming and overriding risk to man.
Escapement: Those fish that have survived all fisheries and will make up a spawning
population.
Estuarine: A partly enclosed coastal body of water that has free connection to open sea,
and within which seawater is measurably diluted by fresh river water.
Eutrophic: Water body rich in dissolved nutrients, photosynthetically productive, and
often deficient in oxygen during warm periods. Compare oligotrophic.
Evolutionary Significant Unit (ESU): A definition of a species used by National Marine
Fisheries Service (NMFS) in administering the Endangered Species Act. An ESU is a
population (or group of populations) that is reproductively isolated from other
conspecific population units, and (2) represents an important component in the
evolutionary legacy of the species.
Extirpation: The elimination of a species from a particular local area.
Flood: An abrupt increase in water discharge.
Floodplain: Lowland areas that are periodically inundated by the lateral overflow of
streams or rivers.
Flow regime: Characteristics of stream discharge over time. Natural flow regime is the
regime that occurred historically.
Fluvial: Pertaining to streams or rivers; also, organisms that migrate between main rivers
and tributaries. Compare adfluvial.
Gabion: Wire basket filled with stones, used to stabilize streambanks, control erosion,
and divert stream flow.
Genetic Diversity Unit (GDU) is defined as: A group of genetically similar stocks that is
genetically distinct from other such groups. The stocks typically exhibit similar life
histories and occupy ecologically, geographically and geologically similar habitats. A
GDU may consist of a single stock
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Geomorphology: Study of the form and origins of surface features of the Earth.
Glides: Stream habitat having a slow, relatively shallow run of water with little or no
surface turbulence.
Healthy Stock: A stock of fish experiencing production levels consistent with its
available habitat and within the natural variations in survival for the stock.
Hydrograph: Chart of water levels over time.
Hydrology: Study of the properties, distribution, and effects of water on the Earth's
surface, subsurface, and atmosphere.
Intermittent stream: Stream that has interrupted flow or does not flow continuously.
Compare perennial stream.
Intraspeciflc interactions: Interactions within a species.
Large Woody Debris (LWD): Large woody material that has fallen to the ground or into
a stream. An important part of the structural diversity of streams. LWD is also
referenced to as "coarse woody debris" (CWD). Either term usually refers to pieces at
least 20 inches (51 cm) in diameter.
Limiting Factor: Single factor that limits a system or population from reaching its
highest potential.
Macroinvertebrates: Invertebrates large enough to be seen with the naked eye (e.g., most
aquatic insects, snails, and amphipods).
Mass failure: Movement of aggregates of soil, rock and vegetation down slope in
response to gravity.
Native: Occurring naturally in a habitat or region; not introduced by humans.
Non -Point Source Pollution: Polluted runoff from sources that cannot be defined as
discrete points, such as areas of timber harvesting, surface mining, agriculture, and
livestock grazing.
Parr: Young trout or salmon actively feeding in freshwater; usually refers to young
anadromous salmonids before they migrate to the sea. See smolt.
Plunge pool: Basin scoured out by vertically falling water.
Rain -on -snow events: The rapid melting of snow as a result of rainfall and warming
ambient air temperatures. The combined effect of rainfall and snow melt can cause high
overland stream flows resulting in severe hillslope and channel erosion.
Rearing habitat: Areas required for the successful survival to adulthood by young
animals.
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Recovery: The return of an ecosystem to a defined condition after a disturbance.
Redds: Nests made in gravel (particularly by salmonids); consisting of a depression that
is created and the covered.
Resident fish: Fish species that complete their entire life cycle in freshwater.
Riffle: Stream habitat having a broken or choppy surface (white water), moderate or
swift current, and shallow depth.
Riparian: Type of wetland transition zone between aquatic habitats and upland areas.
Typically, lush vegetation along a stream or river.
Riprap: Large rocks, broken concrete, or other structure used to stabilize streambanks
and other slopes.
Rootwad: Exposed root system of an uprooted or washed -out tree.
SASSI: Salmon and Steelhead Stock Inventory.
SSHIAP: A salmon, Steelhead, habitat inventory and assessment program directed by the
Northwest Indian Fisheries Commission.
Salmonid: Fish of the family salmonidae, including salmon, trout chars, and bull trout.
Salmon: Includes all species of the family Salmonid
Sediment: Material carried in suspension by water, which will eventually settle to the
bottom.
Sedimentation: The process of sediment being carried and deposited in water.
Side channel: A portion of an active channel that does not carry the bulk of stream flow.
Side channels may carry water only during high flows, but are still considered part of the
total active channel.
Sinuosity: Degree to which a stream channel curves or meanders laterally across the land
surface.
Slope stability: The degree to which a slope resists the downward pull of gravity.
Smolt: Juvenile salmon migrating seaward; a young anadromous trout, salmon, or char
undergoing physiological changes that will allow it to change from life in freshwater to
life in the sea. The smolt state follows the parr state. See parr.
Stock: Group of fish that is genetically self - sustaining and isolated geographically or
temporally during reproduction. Generally, a local population of fish. More specifically,
a local population — especially that of salmon, steelhead (rainbow trout), or other
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anadromous fish — that originates from specific watersheds as juveniles and generally
returns to its birth streams to spawn as adults.
Stream order: A classification system for streams based on the number of tributaries it
has. The smallest unbranched tributary in a watershed is designated order 1. A stream
formed by the confluence of 2 order 1 streams is designated as order 2. A stream formed
by the confluence of 2 order 2 streams is designated order 3, and so on.
Stream reach: Section of a stream between two points.
Stream types:
Type 1: All waters within their ordinary high -water mark as inventoried in
"Shorelines of the State ".
Type 2: All waters not classified as Type 1, with 20 feet or more between each
bank's ordinary high water mark. Type 2 waters have high use and are important
from a water quality standpoint for domestic water supplies, public recreation, or
fish and wildlife uses.
Type 3: Waters that have 5 or more feet between each bank's ordinary high water
mark, and which have a moderate to slight use and are more moderately important
from a water quality standpoint for domestic use, public recreation and fish and
wildlife habitat.
Type 4: Waters that have 2 or more feet between each bank's ordinary high water
mark. Their significance lies in their influence on water quality of larger water
types downstream. Type 4 streams may be perennial or intermittent.
Type 5: All other waters, in natural water courses, including streams with or
without a well - defined channel, areas of perennial or intermittent seepage, and
natural sinks. Drainage ways having a short period of spring runoff are also
considered to be Type 5.
Sub Watershed: One of the smaller watersheds that combine to form a larger watershed.
Thalweg: Portion of a stream or river with deepest water and greatest flow.
Watershed: Entire area that contributes both surface and underground water to a
particular lake or river.
Watershed rehabilitation: Used primarily to indicate improvement of watershed
condition or certain habitats within the watershed. Compare watershed restoration.
Watershed restoration: Reestablishing the structure and function of an ecosystem,
including its natural diversity; a comprehensive, long -term program to return watershed
health, riparian ecosystems, and fish habitats to a close approximation of their condition
prior to human disturbance.
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Watershed -scale approach: Consideration of the entire watershed in a project or plan.
Weir: Device across a stream to divert fish into a trap or to raise the water level or divert
its flow. Also a notch or depression in a dam or other water barrier through which the
flow of water is measured or regulated.
Wild Stock: A stock that is sustained by natural spawning and rearing in the natural
habitat regardless.
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